I
n 1517, Sultan Salim I annexed Egypt to the Ottoman Empire. Forty years later the Portuguese were driven out of the Red Sea. The Turks occupied Zeyla but not Berbera. Their garrison was however with-drawn in 1633 and Zeyla came under the rule of Imam of Sanaa in Arabia. Throughout this period, Berbera re-mained independent.In 1871, the Egyptians made an appearance at Ber-bera, and an Egyptian vessel had anchored at Bulhar in 1871.
Reporting the incident, the British Political Resident at Aden wrote that the Commander of the Egyptian vessel is stated to have given “considerable presents to the chief men among the Somalees” (sic). His assessment was that one thousand dollars had been given.
In 1827 a British vessel allegedly trading at Berbera was attacked and plundered by the Habr Awal tribe. A vessel of war was sent to punish the tribe for what the British called the outrage which they had allegedly com-mitted. On the 6th February 1827 a Treaty of peace and commerce* was signed by the elders of the tribe.
* Aitchison’s Treaties, Vol. VII, Calcutta 1865-NAI, New Delhi, India.
(Appendix One) Berbera is a port to the east of Zaila and Tajowra and nearly opposite to Aden.
An expedition was sent in 1854 to explore the country between Berbera and Zanzibar. On the 19th of April 1855 the party were suddenly attacked by Somalees of the El Moosa tribe; two British Officers were wounded, one was killed, and the entire property of the expedition was carried off. A demand was at once made on the Habr Awul tribe for the surrender and punishment of the chief offenders and the demand was enforced by blockade of Berbera.
According to the Aitchison’s Treaties, the elders of the tribe did their best to comply with the demand, but were unable to apprehend the alleged murderers, who took refuge in the interior. The British Government at last consented to withdraw the blockade on the Somalees binding themselves by a Treaty to use their utmost endeavour to deliver up the murderers, to allow free trade with their territories, to abolish traffic in slaves, and to treat with respect any British Agent who might be deputed to see that the conditions of the Treaty were observed. (Appendix Five)
Berbera was the chief port and livestock was provided through it for the garrison as well as for the inhabitants of the settlement in Aden. According to the reports of the British officials, it was not a permanent town but a collection of huts which housed a large Somali population during the trading season. One of the reports stated: “In its normal condition of Somali rule it owns no particular master, each member of the community assembled has a voice in the administration of affairs; hence broils are incessant.” It further stated that, “Berbera affords a safe and commodious harbour to shipping.”
The British described Bulhar not as a harbour, but an open roadstead, which afforded no shelter to ships being exposed to every breeze. As a rule it was only used as a
trading station when on account of inter-tribal disputes the roads to Berbera became dangerous to travelers.
Tajoura and Zaila were of interest to the British Government, largely because in 1840 Her Majesty’s Government purchased the islands commanding the approaches to these two harbours. These islands had never been occupied and Tajoura and Zaila have long been noted emporia for the purpose of the slave-trade.
As mentioned earlier, Zaila and Tajoura were the principal outlets of trade of southern Abyssinia. The British had developed a special interest in these ports.
In 1840, rumours about an expedition from Bordeaux (France) heading for the port of Zaila reached the Court of Directors. The Court directed the British Political Agent at Aden to establish and ensure Great Britain’s influence amongst the inhabitants of the African coastline near Aden, as the settlement of any other power on that coast would be “highly detrimental to British interests.”
The Court especially directed the Political Agent to pur-chase a station which would secure the command of the harbour of Tajoura.Two officers, Captain Moresby and Lieutenant Barker, were entrusted by the Political Agent with the task of ensuring that the Sultan of Tajoura signed a treaty whereby he ceded the Mussa Islands to the British. The treaty was signed on August 19, 1840.
(Appendix Two) The British formally took possession of these islands on August 31, 1840.
The Treaty of 1840 had two important articles, ac-cording to which, Sultan Mahomed bin Mahomed of Tajoura agreed not to enter into any treaty or bond with any other European nation without consulting the British authorities at Aden (Article 2). He also agreed not to acquiesce in any bond or treaty detrimental or injurious to British interests (Article 4).There was some doubt with regard to the right of the Sultan of Tajoura to enter into treaty stipulations with foreign powers. Captain Moresby
wrote, “The Sultan of Tajoura pays annually from 1,200 to 1,300 German Crown, called head-money, to the in-habitants of Zaila. When I mentioned that this showed they were tributary of Zaila, the Sultan and headman said no, it was a very old standing custom, and that they were perfectly independent of Zaila.”
At first, establishing the British influence at Zaila proved to be difficult. Captain Moresby reported that it was entirely dependent on Mocha, from where a Gover-nor and an armed force were sent for its protection, the inhabitants paying an annual sum of 500 dollars for their services. “There are,” he wrote, “no independent Chiefs at Zaila or about it.” Subsequently, with the consent of the Shereef of Mocha, Captain Moresby concluded a Treaty dated 3rd September 1840 with the Governor of Zaila.
(Appendix Three) This Treaty, similar in its terms to that concluded with the Sultan of Tajoura, ceded to the British Government the island of Aubad.
The position at that time was as follows: The Shereef of Mocha held the port of Zaila by virtue of an annual payment to Mahomed Ali Pasha. The Egyptian Govern-ment had ousted the Imams of Sanaa from a considerable portion of their ancient holdings. Zaila therefore appeared to be tributary of Mocha, and the latter was dependent on Egypt. Thus there was some doubt about the legality of the Zaila Treaty.The Government of India sought in-formation from the Bombay Government whether the Shareef of Mocha and the Government of Zaila had autho-rity to act independently of Egypt; and if they had, it was suggested that the Zaila Treaty should be re-drafted so that while it stipulated for all proper advantages and facilities to British commerce, it should nevertheless omit any provision of exclusive nature directed against the trade of other European nations. An attempt was also to be made to procure the cession of the island of Sad-du-deen in lieu of Aubad, the latter being a mere sand bank
situated at some distance from shore. Pending the result of the necessary enquiries, the British Political Agent at Aden was to “be careful that by no act of his the rights of the British Government over Aubad obtained by the first Treaty are disclaimed or abandoned.”
Hardly had these instructions been issued when the province of Yemen and its dependencies were thrown into a state of anarchy by an attempt by the Imam of Sanna to regain possession of Mocha. Consequently no change was made in the ZailaTreaty. The question of the right of the Governor of Zaila to negotiate a treaty therefore still remained a matter of doubt. Captain Playfair in his History of Yemen is clear on this as well as on the Tajoura Treaty. He wrote: “While these events (the purchase of the islands) occurred, the whole province of Yemen, to which this portion of the Coast of Africa had formerly been, and has since become, a dependency, was in a state of anarchy; it had been evacuated by the Egyptians, the Imam of Sanna had lost the Tahama, which was usurped by the Benee Aseer and the Shereefs of Aboo-Areesh, while they had not extended their arms to Africa.
Towards the end of March 1852 an Aden bugla flying British colours was attacked and pillaged off Berbera. The British blamed the squadron belonging to Sheikh Ali Shermarke, Governor of Zaila, for the attack. The Gover-nor was asked to compensate the owner of the bugla, and further to pay a fine of Rupees 500 for the “insult offered to the British flag.” Shermarke asked for the fine to be excused. The Assistant Political Agent at Aden, Lieute-nant Cruttenden expressed a fear that the Pasha of Yemen would resent the fine as Shermarke was a Turkish subject. The Political Agent Captain Haines observed that Shermarke was no subject of Turkey, but a Somali by birth, and that the “outrage was purely of his doing and without the knowledge of any other authority.”
On the other hand, Lieutenant Burton and Generals
Coghlan and Tremenhere were of the view that Zaila and Tajoura were not independent territories when the treaties were concluded. Lt. Burton was in command of the Somali Expedition of 1854. In a report dated February 22, 1855, Burton stated that Shermarke had “rented”
Zaila and “its dependency Tajoura” from the Porte.He added that the Chief was anxious to fly the British flag at both Zaila and Tajoura.
General Coghlan, Resident at Aden, in the same year (1855) spoke still more strongly on the point. Having carefully studied the available correspondence on the subject in the Aden Residency records, he wrote:
“On the whole, it appears to me that Captains Haines and Moresby were deceived by the Ruler of Tajoura, who was a mere farmer of his Government, and who sold to the British what did not belong to him; nevertheless our object (namely, to prevent the French purchasing the same places) was probably effected as well as if the sale had been valid.”
In 1855, Coghlan and the Habr Gerhajis and the Habr Toljaala Tribes have signed a Treaty prohibiting the exportation of slaves from any part under latters’
authority. (Appendix Four)
General Tremenhere observed in a memorandum on the subject on July 13, 1874:
“Some doubt may be entertained regarding the vali-dity of the sale of the Islands of Mussa, Aubad, and Bab.
Both Tajoura and Zaila were tributary to Mocha; the purchases were made in 1840, the year in which the Egyptian forces were entirely withdrawn from Yemen, and the whole country was thrown into a state of the utmost confusion. They (Tajoura and Zaila) now, I under-stand, both fly a Turkish flag. The possession of these islands might be given up in return for concessions on the part of the Egyptian Government.”
Whilst on the subject of these Treaties, it may well be
mentioned that in 1873 Her Majesty’s Consul General at Alexandria had a conversation with the Viceroy of Egypt in which the latter suggested that the British should resign the islands obtained by her in 1840 from the Sultan of Tajoura and the Governor of Zaila. The Viceroy res-ponded that the French Government had purchased from one Sheikh Ahmed some land near Zaila, and had then represented to the Viceroy that no menace was intended towards Egypt, but that with reference to England’s strong position in the Red Sea, it would be as well for Egypt to have a strong neighbour at hand in case of need.
The Viceroy gave the Consul General to understand that he did not at all agree with the views of the French. He entirely denied, however, the right of Sheikh Ahmed to sell the land, and said that if England would consent to abandon the islands she had bought from the same Sheikh, on the illegality of the purchase being re-presented to him, he would warn the French that their purchase was illegal, and ask them to withdraw from it in the same way he had successfully induced the Italian Government to withdraw from a similar acquisition. But if England maintained her right of occupation and the legality of her title, he should be obliged to give way to both her as well as to France.
Her Majesty’s Government presumed that Little Aden was the territory referred to by the Viceroy. The Govern-ment of India therefore pointed out that the Mussa Island and Aubad, and not Little Aden, were the possessions alluded to, and that the legality of their purchase was unassailable for the reasons advanced by Captain Playfair in his History of Arabia Felix and Yemen, viz., the fact that at the time of the purchase “the Governments of Zaila and Tajourra were in the hands of their hereditary Chiefs, who owned no subjection to any foreign power, and con-sequently were perfectly competent to cede any part of their territories.”
The Government of India also objected to any abandonment of the claim of Her Majesty’s Government to the islands on two grounds: first, that there was no certainty that the French would follow the example, and second, because of the importance of the islands conse-quent on the opening of the Suez Canal had increased.
Ultimately Her Majesty’s Government desired the Consul General to allow the matter to drop and not revert to it unless the Khedive should do so.
“We are not, “said the Government of India, “disposed to share the apprehensions expressed by the Viceroy of Egypt as to French designs in the Red Sea at present; but we cannot think that, in the event of the British Govern-ment relinquishing the islands in question, there would be any certainty that the example would be followed by the French Government.”
BURTON’S VISIT BURTON’S VISITBURTON’S VISIT BURTON’S VISITBURTON’S VISIT
In 1854 a mission, which was known as the Somali expedition, was sent to explore the area between Berbera and Zanzibar. Lieutenant Burton headed the expedition.
In his despatches to England, he had described the port of Berbera as having great value. On April 19, 1855 the mission was attacked and a Lieutenant Croyan was killed. In response the British blocked the port. They hoped that as a result of the blockade the chiefs would be forced to surrender those who were guilty of killing Lieutenant Croyan. The sheikhs did not respond to the pressure tactics.
After more than a year, the blockade was lifted. On November 7, 1856, a fresh treaty was concluded with the sheikhs. (Appendix Five)
The terms of this treaty permitted all vessels trading under the British flag to trade with Berbera and any other ports of the Habr Awal tribe. Slave trade was barred for ever and the British Resident at Aden was to send an Agent to live at Berbera, which was de facto and de jure independent.
In 1859, an inter-tribal dispute at Berbera about the right of possession of a small fort revealed the value of the port to Aden. The authorities at Aden settled the dispute quickly but not before its regular supply of pro-visions had been somewhat affected. In reporting the matter to the Bombay Government, General Russell remarked: “Berbera to Aden is of the greatest value, and this chronic state of disorder and unrule [for there are no rulers; every man has his share; the assembly is a demo-cracy without laws and regulations of any kind] is much to be deplored. We are at any time liable to have our supplies stopped. I am of (the) opinion that for the pro-tection of trade (a) native as British Agent should be at Berbera during the trade season. The existing treaties with such various tribes who are without Sheikhs or heads are of little or no avail.”
General Russell’s views were received in January 1870. He felt that the presence of a Native Agent at Berbera would be highly desirable, though not unatten-ded with danger, as the Somalis had no responsible Government. Considering that there was little by way of safety; it was quite possible that the Agent might be killed during the frequent inter-tribal brawls. The town, he observed, was attracting the attention of foreign powers;
the French had been visiting it frequently. It was also rumoured that the Turks were about to send their troops and vessels to seize the town. Therefore General Russell felt that it was a matter of vital importance to Aden that Berbera should be an open and good mart.
Earlier in 1847 the Imam of Muscat too sent an emissary to Berbera to claim that port as his by right, but the Somalis did not accept his claim
Lieutenant Burton stayed at Zeyla from 31st October to the 27th November 1854. In his book, “First Footsteps in East Africa, 1856,” He wrote: “The Governor of Zaila, El Hajj Shermarkay bin Ali Salih, is rather a remarkable
man. He is sixteenth, according to his own account, in descent from Ishak El Hazrami, the saintly founder of the great Garhajis and Awal tribes. Originally the Nacoda, or Captain of the native craft, he has raised himself, chiefly by British influence, to the chieftainship of his tribe (a clan of the Habr Garhajis). As early as May 1825, he received from Captain Bagnold, then our Resi-dent at Mocha, a testimonial and a reward for a severe sword wound in the left arm, received whilst defending the lives of English seamen. He went afterwards to Bombay, where he was treated with consideration; and about fifteen years ago he succeeded the Sayyid Mohamud El Barr as Governor of Zaila and its dependencies, under the Ottoman Pasha in Western Arabia.”
“In July 1855, the Hajj Shermarkay was deposed by the Turkish Pasha of Hodeida, ostensibly for failing to keep some roads open, or, according to others for assis-ting to plunder a caravan belonging to the Dankali tribe.
It was reported that he had been made a prisoner, and the Political Resident at Aden saw the propriety of politely asking Turkish authorities to ‘be easy’ upon the old man. In consequence of this representation, he was afterwards allowed, on paying a fine of $3,000, to retire to Aden.”
About Zaila, Burton wrote: “this place called Audal or Auzal by the Somalis, is a town about the size of Suez, built for 3,000 or 4,000 inhabitants, and containing a dozen large white-washed stone houses, and upwards of 200 Arish or thatched huts, each surrounded by a fence of wattle and matting. The situation is a low and level spit of sand, which high tides make almost an island. There is no harbour: a vessel of 250 tons cannot approach within a mile of the landing place; the open roadstead is exposed to the terrible north wind, and when gales blow from the west and south, it is almost unapproachable. Every ebb leaves a sandy flat, extending half-mile southward from
the town; the reefy anchorage is difficult for entrance after the sunset, and the coralline bottom renders wading painful.
“The public edifices are six mosques, including the Jami, for Friday prayer: These buildings have queer little crenelles on whitewashed walls, and a kind of elevated summer house to represent the minaret. Near one of them are remains of a circular Turkish minar, manifestly of modern construction. There is no Mahkameh, or Kazi’s court; that dignitary transacts business at his own house, and the festival prayers are recited near the Saint’s tomb outside the eastern gate. The north-east angle of the town is occupied by a large grave-yard with the usual dele-terious consequences.
“The climate of Zaila is cooler than that of Aden, and the site being open all round, it is not so unhealthy. Much spare room is enclosed by the town walls. Zaila commands the adjacent harbour of Tajurrah, and is by position the northern part of Aussa (the ancient capital of Adel) of Harar, and of southern Abyssinia. It sends caravans northwards to the Dankali, and south-westwards through the Easa and Gadabursi tribes, as far as Efat and Gurague. It is visited by Kafilas from Abyssinia, and the different races of Bedouins extending from the hills to the sea-board. The exports are valuable slaves, ivory, hides, honey, clarified butter and gums: the coast abounds in sponge, coral, and small pearls, which Arab divers collect in the fair season. In the harbour I found about twenty native craft, large and small; of these, ten belonged to the Governor. They trade with Berbera, Arabia, and Western India and are navigated by “Rajpoot” or Hindoo pilots.
The origin of Zaila is lost in obscurity, but it is sup-posed to be the Avalites of the Periplus and Pliny. “About the seventh century, when the Southern Arabs penetrated into the heart of Abyssinia it became the great factory of the eastern coast, and rose to its highest of splendour.