Industrialisation and reproductive rights

EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE, FLORENCE

E UI W O R K I N G PAPE

INDUSTRIALISAT!

REPRODUCTIVE

by

^

Paulin J

.

.

Social Administration, Departments of Social Science,

University College Dublin, Ireland

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

All rights reserved.

No part of this paper may be

reproduced in any form without

oermission of the authors.

(C) Pauline Jackson B.Soc.Sc. M. Sc.

Printed in Italy in February 1986

European University Institute

Badia Fiesolana

50016 SAN DOMENICO (Fi)

Italy

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

P R E F A C E

T h i s P a p e r w a s f i r s t p r e s e n t e d to a s e m i n a r o r g a n i s e d by the W o m e n ' s G r o u p of the E u r o p e a n U n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t e on 12 t h N o v e m ­ ber 1 9 8 4 . T h e a u t h o r is g r a t e f u l to the W o m e n ' ® G r o u p for p r o v i d ­ ing a f o r u m for the i d e a s e x p r e s s e d in the p a p e r .

My t h a n k s a r e a l s o e x t e n d e d to M a u r e e n C a i n for h e r c r i t i c a l c o m m e n t s o n an e a r l i e r d r a f t of t h i s p a p e r .

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

R E P R O D U C T I V E R I G H T S

" T h e c e n t r a l a r g u m e n t of r e p r o d u c t i v e r i g h t s is t h a t r e p r o d u c ­ t i v e i s s u e s m u s t be v i e w e d in t h e i r s p e c i f i c s o c i a l , h i s t o r i c a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n t e x t s . F u r t h e r , r e p r o d u c t i o n is a f u n d a m e n ­ tal h u m a n r i g h t m e i t h e r the s t a t e nor the a c t i o n s of o t h e r s s h o u l d d e n y a n y p e r s o n a u t o n o m y o v e r t h e i r r e p r o d u c t i v e p r o c e s s ­ e s . " ( C l a r k e : 1984: 189) * S i n c e the e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w o m e n ' s m o v e m e n t s h a v e a d v o ­ c a t e d the r i g h t of w o m e n to h a v e c o n t r o l o v e r r e p r o d u c t i o n , s p e ­ c i f i c a l l y the r i g h t to l i m i t f a m i l y si z e and to s p a c e t h e i r c h i l ­ d r e n at i n t e r v a l s . F r o m M a r g a r e t S a n g e r ' s s t r u g g l e for c o n t r a c e p t i o n for w o r k i n g w o m e n in A m e r i c a to l a w y e r G i s e l l e H a l i m i ' s d e f e n s e of a b o r t i o n in c o n t e m p o r a r y F r a n c e , the f o c u s of f e m i n i s t m o v e m e n t s h a s t e n d e d to be on a v o i d i n g c o m p u l s o r y m o t h e r h o o d . C h a n g i n g p u b l i c v i e w s on the r i g h t s of w o m e n , o n w o r l d p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h in the III W o r l d and the d i f f u s i o n of c h e m i c a l a n d t e c h n i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s in w o m e n ' s c o n t r a c e p t i o n m e t h o d s and t e r m i n a t i o n and s t e r i l i s a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s h a v e b r o u g h t t h e p o s s i ­ b i l i t y of b i r t h c o n t r o l or f a m i l y s i z e l i m i t a t i o n w i t h i n the o r b i L of t e n s of m i l l i o n s of w o m e n a c r o s s the g l o b e .W h e t h e r t h e s e i n n o v a t i o n s are s u f f i c i e n t l y s a f e , e f f e c t i v e , c h e a p and a c c e s s i b l e is a s e p a r a t e is s u e , not the s u b j e c t of t h i s p a p e r ,t h o u g h it is p a r t of t h e t h e m e of r e p r o d u c t i v e f r e e d o m ( A r d i t

-©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n a n d R e p r o d u c t i v e R i g h t s p a g e 2 O n the o t h e r s i d e of the b i r t h l i m i t a t i o n c o i n , f e m i n i s t s in the m i d - s e v e n t i e s w e r e r e l u c t a n t to e x a m i n e the s o c i a l , h i s t o r i c a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l f a c t o r s w h i c h i m p i n g e on w o m e n ' s c a p a c i t y to c o n c e i v e a n d b e a r the c h i l d r e n t h e y do w i s h to r e a r , a n d it is th i s a s p e c t of r e p r o d u c t i v e f r e e d o m r i g h t s a n d f r e e d o m w h i c h m e r ­ its a c l o s e r s c r u t i n y a n d w h i c h is b r i e f l y a d d r e s s e d in th i s p a p e r . T h e i m p e d i m e n t s to e x e r c i s i n g r e p r o d u c t i v e f r e e d o m a r e v a r i e d in l e v e l and a v a r i e t y of s c i e n c e s o f f e r e x p l a n a t i o n s and a n a l y ­ ses.

T h e r e are pol i t i x a l and e c o n o m i c o b s t a c l e s to e x e r c i s i n g i n d i v i d u a l r e p r o d u c t i v e f r e e d o m , f o r w o m e n l i v i n g in s t a t e s w i t h p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l p o l i c i e s s u c h as C h i n a or I n d i a . In the f o r ­ m e r , s a n c t i o n s , a n d in the l a t t e r , i n c e n t i v e s , h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d to b o t h w o m e n and m e n to d e t e r t h e m f r o m r e p r o d u c i n g m o r e t h a n a g i v e n n u m b e r of c h i l d r e n . C h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n a n d u n d e r d e v e l o p ­ m e n t d i m i n i s h the c a p a c i t i e s of w o m e n in v e r y p o o r c o u n t r i e s f r o m b r i n g i n g e a c h p r e g n a n c y to f r u i t i o n . A t a a n o t h e r l e v e l , p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s of w o m e n m a y be t a r g e t t e d h i s t o r i c a l l y for s t e r i l i s a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s , in s t a t e s w h i c h o t h e r w i s e a p p e a r to g u a r a n t e e r e p r o ­ d u c t i v e f r e e d o m . T h i s w a s the c a s e of n o n - A r y a n w o m e n in N a z i G e r ­ m a n y and m a y h a v e b e e n the c a s e for b l a c k w o m e n and g i r l s in S o u t h e r n S t a t e s p r i o r to the U . S . C i v i l R i g h t s m o v e m e n t . A t h i r d set of i m p e d i m e n t s a r i s e s w h e n c u s t o m s a n d r e l i g o u s p r a c t i c e s t r e a t the c h i l d r e n of m a r r i a g e d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m c h i l d r e n b o r n o u t s i d e m a r r i a g e , d e t e r r i n g u n m a r r i e d w o m e n f r o m p u r s u i n g w a n t e d

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

p r e g n a n c i e s ,by r e s o r t to a b o r t i o n or i n f a n t i c i d e . F o u r t h l y , i m p e d i m e n t s to r e p r o d u c t i v e f r e e d o m c a n a r i s e f r o m b i o l o g i c a l o b s t a c l e s :l o w f e r t i l i t y l e v e l s in m e n , o r w o m e n h a v i n g a d i m i n ­ i s h i n g c a p a c i t y to c o n c e i v e ,c a r r y or g i v e b i r t h to h e a l t h y c h i l ­ d r e n . In the m e a n t i m e i n f e r t i l i t y h a s b e c o m e a b i g b u s i n e s s in the U. S . w i t h t e s t - t u b e b a b i e s ,i n - v i t r o f e r t i l i s a t i o n and s u r r o g a t e m o t h e r h o o d p r o p o s e d as o f t e n c o m m e r c i a l i s e d a l t e r n a t i v e s to i n f e r t i l e c o m p a n i o n s a n d p a r t n e r s . T h e e m p h a s i s w o u l d s e e m to be m o v i n g a w a y f r o m r e s o l v i n g the c a u s e s of i n f e r t i l i t y to d e a l i n g w i t h its m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . U n t i l v e r y r e c e n t l y , m e d i c a l s c i e n c e s h a d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e m o n o p o l y o n t h i s f o u r t h t y p e of o b s t a c l e .I n f e r t i l i t y w a s o f t e n p r e s u m e d to be an i m m u t a b l e and n a t u r a l b i o l o g i c a l s t a t e a r i s i n g f r o m d e f e c t s in w o m e n m o r e o f t e n th a n m e n . M e d i c a l s c i e n c e c a n n o w o f f e r r e s o l u t i o n s to s o m e t y p e s of i n f e r t i l i t y by s u r g i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n , and h o r m o n e t r e a t m e n t ,a n d d e s p i t e p o p u l a r m y t h s , w o m e n in m e d i c a l s c i e n c e a r e no l o n g e r c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o l e c a u s e s of a c o u p l e ' s i n a b i l i t y to c o n c e i v e . O n c e i n f e r t i l i t y c o u l d , t o an e x t e n t , b e t r e a t e d , the p r o b l e m n a t u r a l l y a r o s e of w h e t h e r it c o u l d be p r e v e n t e d a n d w h a t w e r e the c a u s e s . T h e r e is a g r o w i n g b o d y of e v i d e n c e , m u c h of it at the s p e c u ­ l a t i v e s t a g e s , t h a t i n d u s t r i a l e n v i r o n m e n t s l o w e r f e r t i l i t y . O n e s u c h s t u d y ( C a s t l e m a n : 1 982) n o t e d a d e c l i n e in A m e r i c a n male, f e r ­ t i l i t y o v e r the la s t 50 y e a r s . A n e x a m i n a t i o n of s p e r m f r o m o t h e r ­ w i s e h e a l t h y o u n g A m e r i c a n c o l l e g e b o y s d e t e c t e d s e v e r a l c l a s s e s

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n a n d R e p r o d u c t i v e R i g h t s p a g e 4

of t o x i c s u s b t a n c e s in t h e i r s p e r m ,i n c 1 u d i n g D D T and s o l v e n t s . In t h i s p a p e r I r e v i e w t h i s e v i d e n c e . s e t t i n g it in the c o n t e x t of the r e p r o d u c t i v e r i g h t s of w o m e n and men.

T O X I C S U B S T A N C E S E v e r y y e a r t e n s of t h o u s a n d s of n e w c h e m i c a l s u b s t a n c e s are d i s ­ c o v e r e d a n d l a u n c h e d on the m a r k e t ( C o n t a m i n a t e d C r o w : 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e y are e m p l o y e d in d r u g s , v e t e r i n a r y p r o d u c t s , a s f o o d p r e s e r v a ­ t i v e s , p e s t i c i d e s , i n d u s t r i a l a n d d o m e s t i c c l e a n i n g a g e n t s , i n c o n ­ t r a c e p t i v e s and a m y r i a d of o t h e r u s e s . A b o u t 5 n f 0 0 0 c h e m i c a l s are in u s e in i n d u s t r y . O n l y a f r a c t i o n of t h e s e c a n be f u l l y t e s t e d a n d i n v e s t i g a t e d a n d h a v e r e g u l a t e d e x p o s u r e l e v e l s set for t h em. An e v e n s m a l l e r n u m b e r a r e r e m o v e d f r o m the m a r k e t . A c a s e at i s s u e c u r r e n t l y in the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y is the u s e of h o r m o n a l g r o w t h p r o m o t e r s in c a t t l e r e a r i n g s u c h as D i e t h i l s t i l b e s — t r o l . This su b s t a n c e c o u l d p a s s f r o m the c a t t l e i n t o o u r f o o d and d i s t u r b r e p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s in c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s ( B i c h l e r : 1981 ) . T h e t y p e s of i m p a c t s w h i c h c e r t a i n t o x i c s u s b t a n c e s a n d p r o c e s s i c a n h a v e on w o m e n s r e p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i ­ t i e s v a r y in g r a v i t y ,p e r m a n e n c e and t y p e . T h e y m a y i n t e r v e n e in o n e or m o r e of the w a y s i n d i c a t e d in D i a g r a m 1. A n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a r e p r o d u c t i v e p r o b l e m c o m e s f r o m C a l i f o r n i a f r o m w o m e n l i v i n g in a n e w l y i n d u s t r i a l i s e d e n v i r o n m e n t but not all w o r k i n g in i n d u s t r y . I n S a n J o s e C o u n t y in N o r t h e r n C a l i f o r ­ n i a ' s " S i l i c o n V a l l e y " 2 6 0 r e s i d e n t s a r e s u i n g t h e F a i r c h i l d earn­ er a a n d I n s t r u m e n t C o m p a n y o v e r w a t e r c o n t a m i n a t e d , t h e y

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

D i a g r a m 1 T y p e of I m p a c t D i s r u p t e d M e n s t r u a l c y c l e s I n a b i l i t y to c o n c e i v e T e n d e n c y to m i s c a r r y / a b o r t E x a m p l e of H a z a r d o u s C l a s s of S u b s t a n c e S o m e S o l v e n t s H e a v y m e t a l s , o e s t r o g e n s A n a e s t h e t i c g a s e s D a m a g e to f o e t u s f r o m e x p o s u r e R a d i a t i o n . D i o x i n S t i l l b i r t h ( S o u r c e : H r i c k o . B r u n t .19 7 6 ) a l l e g e , b y l e a k s f r o m s o l v e n t ( s ) f r o m the local. F a i r c h i l d f a c t o r y . A m o n g t h e m are 22 w o m e n w h o s u f f e r e d m i s c a r r i a g e s . T h e r e s i d e n t s i n c l u d e s e v e n p a r e n t s w h o s e b a b i e s d i e d f r o m c o n g e n i t a l d e f e c t s and 18 w h o s e c h i l d r e n h a v e h e a r t a i l m e n t s . T h e s u s p e c t e d c o n t a m i ­ n a n t is T r i c h l o r e t h a n e w h i c h is a s o l v e n t c o m m o n l y u s e d in e l e c ­ t r o n i c s p r o d u c t i o n . l t b e l o n g s to the C h l o r i n a t e d H y d r o c a r b o n s g r o u p of s u b s t a n c e s u s e d as i n d u s t r i a l s o l v e n t s w o r l d w i d e . O t h e r s in the g r o u p are X y l e n e , T o l u e n e , and B e n z e n e a n d w o m e n e x p o s e d to t h e s e h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d m e n s t r u a l d i s o r d e r s ( H r i c k o and B r u n t ; 1 9 7 6 ) . H e r e is h o w a w o m a n w o r k e r in the W e s t of I r e l a n d d e s c r i b e s h e r e x p o s u r e to an u n n a m e d c h e m i c a l w h i c h she t h i n k s is b a n n e d in A m e r i c a : "It r e a l l y a f f e c t s y o u r p e r i o d s . . c o m p l e t e l y i r r e g u l a r . I f i n d it d o e s , .y o u get p a i n s and y o u feel r e a l l y w e a k , r e a l l y p a i n f u l . . I ' v e n e v e r s e e n a p l a c e l i k e it for c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t p e r i o d s . " ( H a r r i s : 1 984)

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n and R e p r o d u c t i v e R i g h t s p a g e 6

In the a b o v e i n s t a n c e the w o m a n w a s e x p o s e d to w h a t she b e l i e v e d to be a s u b s t a n c e d a m a g i n g to h e r r e p r o d u c t i v e s y s t e m . I n a r e c e n t B r i t i s h c a s e , a w o m a n t r u c k d r i v e r w a s N O T A L L O W E D to w o r k h a u l i n g the s u b s t a n c e d i t n r t h y l f o r m a m i d e ( D M F ) b e c a u s e h e r e m p l o y ­ er b e l i e v e d it c o u l d be d a m a g i n g to the f o e t u s . T h e w o m a n w a s not p r e g n a n t a n d b r o u g h t a c a s e u n d e r the U n i t e d K i n g d o m S e x D i s c r i m ­ i n a t i o n A c t . She .lost h e r c a s e w h e n the T r i b u n a l r u l e d th a t an e m p l o y e r h a d the r i g h t to d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n e m p l o y e e s to p r o ­ te c t t h e i r h e a l t h a n d s a f e t y ( G i l l and W h i 1 1 y , 1 983 ; 267 ) . G i v e n the d e e p l y h e l d p e r s o n a l , e m o t i o n a l a n d r e l i g o u s f e e l i n g s w h i c h w o m e n m a y h o l d c o n c e r n i n g b i r t h a n d p r e g n a n c y , i t is o f t e n d i f f i c u l t f o r . w o m e n "to s p e a k out w i t h o u t s h a m e or fe a r of r i d i ­ c u l e a b o u t m e n s t r u a l c y c l e s , m i s c a r r i a g e or the d e a t h of a n e w l y b o r n c h i l d . O u t s i d e r s m a y i m a g i n e it is an a t t e m p t to 'cope' or 1 r a t i o n a l i s e '.a- ' p e r s o n a l t r a g e d y a n d m a y d i s o u n t it as r a t i o n a l a n d l e g i t i m a t e c a u s e for a l a r m . I n d e e d u n l e s s , i n a g i v e n l o c a l i t y or a m o n g s t a g i v e n p o p u l a t i o n t h e r e is a b a s e l i n e for m e n s t r u a l c y c l e s or m i s c a r r i a g e , it is i m p o s s i b l e to f i n d r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s a g a i n s t w h i c h to c o m p a r e t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s o f 'a b n o r m a l 'p a t t e r n s of o c c u r e n c e s . If w o m e n o c c u p a t i o n a l l y or r e s i d e n t i a l l y e x p o s e d to t o x i c s u s b t a n c e s a r e c o m p l a i n i n g of s u c h d i s o r d e r s , w h y h a s o n e not h e a r d m o r e a b o u t t h i s b e f o r e ? O n e r e a s o n for t h i s is the c h a n g e in w o m e n ' s l a b o u r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n and c h a n g e in the t y p e s of i n d u s t r y u n d e r g r o w i n g g r o w t h at p r e s e n t .

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

I N D U S T R I A L R E S T R U C T U R I N G In E u r o p e , t r a d i t i o n a l i n d u s t r i e s l i k e , s t e e l in B e l g i u m and F r a n c e , s h i p b u i l d i n g in I r e l a n d and E n g l a n d , c o a l m i n i n g a n d a u t o ­ m o b i l e p r o d u c t i o n h a v e b e e n u n d e r g o i n g c r i s i s . T e n s of t h o u s a n d s of j o b s , o f t e n c l a s s e d as s k i l l e d , h a v e b e e n or w i l l b e , l o s t . D u r i n g t h i s p r o c e s s of r u n d o w n of t r a d i t i o n a l i n d u s t r i e s , t h e s u p p l y of l a b o u r in E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s l i k e S w i t z e r l a n d , G e r m a n y a n d F r a n c e h a s b e e n r e d u c e d by c h a n g e s in p o l i c i e s t o w a r d s m i g r a n t w o r k ­ ers. W i t h the c o n t r a c t i o n of i n d u s t r y , a c o m b i n a t i o n of c a s h i n c e n t i v e s and s t r i c t e r i m m i g r a t i o n c o n t r o l s is b e i n g i n t r o d u c e d to e n c o u r a g e m a l e i n d u s t r i a l m i g r a n t w o r k e r s to r e t u r n 'h o m e ' to N o r t h A f r i c a a n d T u r k e y . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is n o t c o n f i n e d to E u r o p e . A u s t r a l i a and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a v e t i g h t e n e d up t h e i r i m m i g r a t i o n q u o t a s for u n s k i l l e d w o r k e r s . D i s i n v e s t m e n t in s o m e i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r s is a c c o m p a n i e d by i n v e s t m e n t in o t h e r s in the i n d u s t r i a l i s e d w e s t e r n e c o n o ­ m i e s . T h e s e n e w e r a r e a s i n c l u d e : e l e c t r o n i c s e n g i n e e r i n g and c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a e r o s p a c e b u l k and f i n e c h e m i c a l s n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y a n d e q u i p m e n t s i n f o r m a t i c s e n e r g y s a v i n g e q u i p m e n t s s o m e b r a n c h e s of b i o t e c h n o l o g y

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n and R e p r o d u c t i v e R i g h t s p a g e 3 In m a n y of the o l d e r i n d u s t r i e s . w o m e n w e r e p r e c l u d e d f r o m jo b s by l a w ( m i n i n g ) by c u s t o m ( c o n s t r u c t i o n ) by r e s t r i c t i o n s o n n i g h t w o r k and w e i g h t l i f t i n g ( s h i f t w o r k in f a c t o r i e s ) or by t r a i n i n g ( c r a f t s k i l l s in s h i p b u i l d i n g / e n g i n e e r i n g ) M a n y of t h e s e r e g u l a ­ t i o n s , r u l e s and c u s t o m s a r o s e or w e r e r e - e n f o r c e d d u r i n g the 1 9 3 0 ’ s ( J a c k s o n : 1 983) to k e e p w o m e n o u t of i n d u s t r i a l j o b s . O v e r the y e a r s , the c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n of i n d u s t r i a l s a f e t y a n d h e a l t h h a s b e e n b a s e d on m a l e b i o l o g y ,in m a l e - d o m i n a t e d b r a n c h e s of m a n ­ u f a c t u r e , p i v o t i n g a r o u n d v e r y s p e c i f i c i n d u s t r i a l d i s e a s e s s u c h as t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m i n i n g a n d t h e a s b e s t o s i n d u s t r y n o t i o n of i n d u s t r i a l ' i n c i d e n t s ' a n d o b s e r v a b l e a c c i d e n t s . T h a t t h i s is the c a s e is c l e a r f r o m the b r i e f e s t p e r u s a l of the r e p o r t s on E u r o p e a n H e a l t h a n d S a f e t y l e g i s l a t i o n p r o d u c e d by the E u r o p e a n F o u n d a t i o n for the I m p r o v e m e n t of L i v i n g a n d W o r k i n g C o n d i ­ t i o n s . T h i s h a s h ad n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s for the r e s e a r c h i n g and d e v e l o p m e n t of a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e s to the o c c u p a t i o n a l h e a l t h and s a f e t y e n v i r o n m e n t of w o m e n w o r k e r s and t h e i r r e p r o d u c t i v e r i g h t s . W O M E N IN I N D U S T R Y I n d u s t r i a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g h a s i n v o l v e d r e c o n s t i t u t i n g w o r k f o r c e s at a t i m e of r i s i n g l a b o u r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n a m o n g women.

T h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e and the U.S. the l a b o u r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of w o m e n h a s b e e n r i s i n g , a l b e i t m o r e s l o w l y in s o m e s t a t e s t h a n o t h e r s . W h i l e the p r o p o r t i o n s of w o m e n in i n d u s t r y in the E E C N i n e m e m b e r s t a t e s fell b e t w e e n 1 9 7 4 and 19 7 8 ( E u r o s t a t ; 1981, 118) the

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

s a m e s h i f t o c c u r e d for m e n r e f l e c t i n g t h e i m p a c t of r e c e s s i o n a m o n g o t h e r f a c t o r s . H o w e v e r in s p e c i f i c b r a n c h e s of m a n u f a c t u r ­ i n g , t h e p r o p o r t i o n s of w o m e n e m p l o y e d r o s e . E x a m p l e s of t h i s are to be f o u n d in n u c l e a r f u e l s ( F r a n c e ) e n e r g y ( E E C 9) i n s t r u m e n t e n g i n e e r i n g ( F r a n c e , B e l g i u m and N e t h e r l a n d s ) O f f i c e e q u i p m e n t (UK) and s o m e b r a n c h e s of c h m e m i c a l s ( E u r o s t a t ; 1981 ,114). T n the c a s e of I r e l a - n d j d o L h i n g , t e x t i l e s and e n g i n e e r i n g / e l e c t r o n i c s a c c o u n t for h a l f of all w o m e n s j o b s in i n d u s t r y ( C e n s u s ; 1 9 8 1 ) . T h e c o m ­ b i n e d i m p a c t of i n d u s t r i a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g a n d the r i s i n g i n d u s t r i ­ al l a b o u r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of w o m e n in c e r t a i n i n d u s t r i a l b r a n c h e s e x p o s e s w o m e n d i r e c t l y to n e w o c c u p a t i o n a l h a z ­ a r d s , i n c l u d i n g r e p r o d u c t i v e h a z a r d s . E q u a l R i g h t s l e g i s l a t i o n f u r ­ t h e r m o r e , e n a b l e s w o m e n to c o n t i n u e to h o l d t h e i r jo b s t h r o u g h a p r e g n a n c y by a v a i l i n g of p a i d m a t e r n i t y l e a v e . In the c a s e of I r e ­ l a n d , the l a r g e s t i n c r e a s e in l a b o u r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o v e r the 1 9 7 0 ' s h a s b e e n a m o n g y o u n g m a r r i e d w o m e n in t h e i r r e p r o d u c t i v e y e a r s ( C e n s u s : 1981). T H I R D W O R L D W O M E N T h e g r o w t h in w o m e n ' s s h a r e of the i n d u s t r i a l w o r k f o r c e in s o m e b r a n c h e s of i n d u s t r y is n o t c o n f i n e d to the i n d u s t r i a l i s e d N o r t h ­ e r n H e m i s p h e r e . I n n e w l y i n d u s t r i a l i s i n g c o u n t r i e s and r e g i o n s of the III W o r l d . w o m e n s s h a r e of i n d u s t r i a l j o b s h a s s e e n a r e m a r k ­ a b l e g r o w t h . T h i s c a n be o b s e r v e d in B r a z i l , o n the M e x i c o / U . C . B o r d e r , on the N o r t h A f r i c a n M a g r e b r e g i o n , a n d in S o u t h E a s t P e a r s o n ; 1 9 8 0 ) In S i n g a p o r e , A s i a ( E l s o n and w o m e n

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n and R e p r o d u c t i v e R i g h t s p a g e 10

n o w o u t n u m b e r m e n in the w o r k f o r c e and the p o o l of a v i l a b l e w o m e n h a s b e e n so d e p l e t e d th a t T h a i w o m e n o n b o n d e d l a b o u r c o n t r a c t s are b e i n g ' i m p o r t e d ' i n t o S i n g a p o r e to do i n d u s t r i a l w o r k ( S a l a m a and Ti s s i e r ; 1 9 8 2 ) . T h i s is i n t e r e s t i n g in r e l a t i o n to e a r l i e r c o m ­ m e n t s on the r e p a t r i a t i o n of m a l e i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s in E u r o p e .T h e a p p e a r a n c e of w o m e n in the c o n t e m p o r a r y i n d u s t r i a l w o r k f o r c e s of n e w l y i n d u s t r i a l i s e d r e g i o n s is a r e l a t i v e l y n e w p h e n o m e n o n d a t i n g b a c k a m e r e 20 y e a r s . T h e s e l e c t i v e i n d u s t r i a l i ­ s a t i o n of the so c a l l e d III W o r l d in the a b o v e c i t e d r e g i o n s h a s t a k e n the f o r m of the e a t a b l i s h m e n t of s u s b s i d i a r i e s of m u l t i n a ­ t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s .in a r e s t r i c t e d n u m b e r of p r o d u c t a r e - as: e l e c t r i c a l g o o d s , e l e c t r o n i c s , t e x t i l e s and g a r ­ m e n t s , t o y s . L o c a t e d u s u a l l y in F r e e T r a d e Z o n e s , m o d e l l e d on the p r o t o t y p e o p e n e d in S h a n n o n , I r e l a n d in the e a r l y s i x t i e s , th i s e n c l a v e f o r m o.f i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , i n d e t e r m i n e d g e o g r a p h i c a l z o n e s , e q u i p p e d w i t h Lhe n e c c e s s a r y i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s and u t i l i t i e s a n d b e n e f i t i n g . f r o m a r a n g e of f i s c a l i n c e n t i v e s , h a s c o n t r a d i c t o ­ ry c o n s e q u e n c e s . O n the o n e h a n d it c o n s t i t u t e s for the c o u n t r i e s in q u e s t i o n a l i m i t e d f o r m of c a p i t a l i n f l o w and g e n e r a t o r of f o r e i g n e x p o r t e a r n i n g s . O n the o t h e r h a n d , the i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s a ­ t i o n of c a p i t a l , i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e s e r e g i o n s i n t o the w o r l d c a p i ­ t a l i s t m a r k e t , c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e i r u n d e r a n d u n e v e n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d h a s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d r e s s e d the i m b a l a n c e s in i n d u s t r i a l t r a d e b e t w e e n the r i c h and p o o r r e g i o n s of the g l o b e . F o r w o m e n the c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e e v e n m o r e c o n t r a d i c t o r y . M a n y of the e x p o r t - o r i e n t e d d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s of t h e s e n e w l y i n d u s t r i a l i s i n g

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

r e g i o n s h a d b e e n u n d e r t a k e n to m o p up c h r o n i c m a l e u n e m p l o y m e n t a n d e m i g r a t i o n : the c a s e of I r e l a n d and M e x i c o . W h a t t h e s e p r o ­ g r a m m e s A C T U A L L Y d i d w a s p r o v i d e ' j obs for the g i r l s ' in m a n y i n s t a n c e s ; c o n t r i b u t e to the i n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n of w o m e n and i n c r e a s e t h e po o l of o f f i c i a l u n e m p l o y e d by the a d d i t i o n of u n e m ­ p l o y e d or job s e e k i n g y o u n g w o m e n . T H E C H A R A C T E R O F E X P O R T E D C A P I T A L C o n t r a r y to the m u c h c i t e d n o t i o n t h a t c h e a p l a b o u r is the p r i n ­ c i p a l or s o l e a t t r a c t i o n for the e x p a n s i o n of i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l to n e w l y i n d u s t r i a l i s i n g r e g i o n s , o t h e r f a c t o r s m a y be e q u a l l y or m o r e i m p o r t a n t . A m o n g the l a t t e r are the t a x / f i s c a l e n v i r o n m e n t s in t h e c a s e of I r e l a n d aruol , p r o x i m i t y to the e x p o r t m a r k e t s ( M e x i c o - U . S . ) or r e d u c e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o s t s ( C a l - g a n o , J o k o b o w i c z ; 1 9 8 1 ) . R e d u c e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o s t s i n v o l v e d i s p e n s i n g w i t h the c a p i ­ tal c o s t s of b u i l d i n g p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l a n d m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m s i n t o the d e s i g n a n d m a n a g e m e n t c o s t s of p r o d u c t i o n , d i s p e n s i n g w i t h h e a l t h a n d s a f e t y p r o g r a m m e s , m e d i c a l i n s u r a n c e , or e m p l o y e r l i a b i l i t y i n s u r a n c e p r o g r a m m e s . T h e s e c o s t s a r e r i s i n g a n d r i s ­ i n g . B e t w e e n 1 9 7 3 and 1979, s o m e 6 0 % of U . S . i n d u s t r i a l i n v e s t m e n t w a s d e s t i n e d to c o v e r a n t i - p o 1 1 u t i o n c o s t s . I n n o n - f e r r o u s m e t a l p r o d u c t i o n , t h e a n t i - p o l l u t i o n c o s t s w e r e 2 2 % , in p a p e r 16% ( C a l - g a n o a n d J o k o b o w i c z ; 1 9 8 1 , 8 6 ) . By s e t t i n g up f a c t o r i e s o v e r s e a s in c o u n t r i e s w i t h p a l t r y or m i n i m a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l s a f e t y l a w s a n d p r a c t i c e s ,

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n and R e p r o d u c t i v e R i g h t s p a g e 12

t h e s e c o s t s c a n be c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d . I n d e e d the s a v i n g s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d for a s b e s t o s , t e x t i l e s a n d h e a v y m e t a l u s i n g i n d u s t r i e s ( C a s t e l m a n ; 1 9 7 9 , 5 7 1 ) . T h e s e c o s t s r o s e s h a r p l y in the U.S. in the e a r l y 1 9 7 0 ' s , f o l l o w i n g s t r o n g o c c u p a t i o n a l h e a l t h a n d e n v i r o n ­ m e n t a l l o b b i e s b o t h i n s i d e and o u t s i d e i n d u s r i a l w o r k p 1 a c e s .T h e U.S. l a b o u r m o v e m e n t m a d e i n r o a d s w i t h the p a s s a g e of the 1970 O c c u p a t i o n a l S a f e t y H e a l t h A c t 1 9 7 0 , the T o x i c S u b s t a n c e s Act 1976 and the C a l i f o r n i a n O c c u p a t i o n a l C a r c i n o g e n s C o n t r o l A c t of 1 9 7 7 . T h e d i f f e r e n c e in c o s t s of b r e a k i n g o n e of the U.S. l a w s and t h e i r e q u i v a l e n t in a III W o r l d e n v i r o n m e n t is w i d e ! F o r e x a m ­ p l e , a b r e a c h of the 1977 C a l i f o r n i a n Act c o u l d c o s t a c o m p a n y $ 1 0 0 0 , w h i l e a b r e a c h of the M e x i c a n 1945 e q u i v a l e n t w o u l d c o s t o n l y £45 a s a v i n g of £ 9 5 5 per b r e a c h of r e g u l a t i o n s ( C a s t l e -m a n ; 1 9 7 9 , 5 7 7 ) ' T h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n of e l e c t r o n i c ,e l e c t r i c a l a n d n u c l e a r u s i n g i n d u s t r i e s g e n e r a t e s s p e c i f i c h a z a r d s to the r e p r o d u c t i v e p r o ­ c e s s e s of w o m e n and m e n . T h e e l e c t r o n i c s and e l e c t r i c a l i n d u s t r y is a m o s t h a z a r d o u s i n d u s t r y in the n u m b e r s of t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s to w h i c h an e m p l o y e e m i g h t be e x p o s e d . A b o u t 80% of the 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 A s i a n e l e c t r o n i c s and e l e c t r i c a l w o r k e r s a r e w o m e n a n d are y o u n g in t h e i r c h i l d b e a r i n g y e a r s ( U r b a n R u r a l M i s s i o n ; 1 9 8 3 ) . In the U. S . n e a r l y h a l f of all o c c u p a t i o n a l d i s e a s e r e p o r t s f r o m w o m e n w o r k e r s a r i s e f r o m e l e c t r i c a l and e l e c t r o n i c m a n u f a c t u r e ( H r i c k o . B r u n t ; 1 9 7 6 , D - 3 5 ) E l e c t r o n i c m a n u f a c t u r e i n v o l v e s the u s e of a c i d s a n d d llvcr.ts to c l e a n t i n y c o m p u t e r and m i c r o c h i p p a r t s d e g r e a s i n g a g e n t s and f u m e - e m i t t i n g s o l d e r i n g p r o c e s s e s .

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

I r e l a n d h a s no n u c l e a r p o w e r i n d u s t r y a n d no n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s , t h a n k s to a s t r o n g a n t i - n u c l e a r m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n 1977 and 1 9 8 0 . N e v e r t h e l e s s , o v e r 2 0 0 f a c t o r i e s h a v e l i c e n s e s to u s e low l e v e l r a d i a t i o n in t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s . T h e p r o t e c t i o n for w o m e n w o r k e r s u n d e r the l a w is n o t s a t i s f a c t o r y . T h e r e is no s a f e l e v e l of e x p o s u r e to l o w - l e v e l r a d i a t i o n . T h e m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n c o n c e d e s t h a t , i n s o f a r as w o m e n are n o l o n g e r X - R a y e d in h o s p i t a l s u n l e s s t h e y c a n s t a t e t h a t t h e y a r e not p r e g n a n t . P r e g n a n t w o m e n h o w e v e r , a r e n o t p r o h i b i t e d f r o m w o r k i n g w i t h l o w - l e v e l r a d i a ­ t i o n . S o c a l l e d " s a f e " e x p o s u r e l e v e l s h a v e b e e n set for the d u r a ­ t i o n of t h e i r p r e g n a n c y a n d t h i s d e s p i t e a c l a u s e in the I r i s h C o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h g i v e s an a b s o l u t e " r i g h t to l i f e to the u n b o r n " .

In the U . S . the c a s e of the A m e r i c a n C y n a m i d c o m p a n y h a s b e c o m e a c a t c h w o r d for the p r o b l e m s of r e p r o d u c t i v e h a z ­ a r d s . ( M e r e s o n : 1 982 :6) In the 1 9 7 0 ' s the c o m p a n y a n n o u n c e d t h a t o n l y w o m e n w h o c o u l d p r o v e th a t t h e y w e r e s t e r i l e or b e y o n g the c h i l d b e a r i n g y e a r s c o u l d c o n t i n u e to h o l d j o b s in the l e a d - u s i n g p i g m e n t s a r e a of t h e f a c t o r y . T h e c o m p a n y t o l d w o m e n w o r k e r s that n e w l a w s w o u l d s o o n be d r a f t e d b a n n i n g w o m e n f r o m w o r k in th i s a r e a . F i v e w o m e n at the p l a n t d e c i d e d to h a v e t h e m s e l v e s s t e r i l ­ i s e d in o r d e r to h o l d o n t o t h e i r j o b s . T h e n e w r u l e s w e r e n e v e r m a d e , i n d e e d r e s e a r c h s h o w s t h a t l e a d a f f e c t s m e n A N D w o m e n . T h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l L i b e r t i e s U n i o n s u e d A m e r i c a n C y n a m i d on b e h a l f of the f i v e w o m e n in 19 8 0 c l a i m i n g a m o n g o t h e r i t e m s , d a m a g e s f o r the w o m e n . A m e r i c a n C y n a m i d c l o s e d d o w n t h e i r p i g m e n t s d i v i s i o n 'for

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n and R e p r o d u c t i v e R i g h t s p a g e 14 b u s i n e s s r e a s o n s 1 . T h i s is an i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e in t h a t the c o m p a ­ n y ' s p o l i c y to p r o t e c t the r e p r o d u c t i v e r i g h t s of w o m e n w a s b a s e d on the p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t l e a d d o e s n o t a f f e c t me n . S e x - n e u t r a l h e a l t h p o l i c i e s w o u l d h a v e b e e n in the i n t e r e s t s of b o t h m e n and w o m e n w o r k e r s . T h e e x t e n t of a w a r e n e s s a n d a c t i v i t y on w o r k - h a z a r d i s s u e s a m o n g s o m e A m e r i c a n t r a d e u n i o n s is i l l u s t r a t e d by the w o r k of the Oil C h e m i c a l a n d A t o m i c W o r k e r s U n i o n ( O C A W U ) on r e p r o d u c t i v e i s s u e s . On 2 6 t h J a n u a r y 19 8 0 the O C A W U h e l d a C o n f e r e n c e on R e p r o d u c t i v e R i g h t s in D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o . I n a t t e n d a n c e w e r e t r a d e u n i o n i s t s , lawyers-, r e s - e archers , t o x i c s u b s t a n c e r e s e a r c h e r s , a r e p ­ r e s e n t a t i v e of the U . S . D e p a r t m e n t of L a b o u r a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s - in u n i f o r m - of the U . S . m i l i t a r y . T h e U. S . m i l i t a r y r e p r e s e n t a ­ t i v e w a s the re to d e f e n d the i n t e r e s t s of c o m p a n i e s w i t h m i l i t a r y c o n t r a c t s as w e l l as the U.S. A r m y ' s o w n r e s e a r c h and p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w a r n e d t h a t w o m e n m u s t m a k e a c h o i c e b e t w e e n E q u a l R i g h t s at w o r k or r e p r o d u c t i v e r i g h t s , b u t n o t b o t h . S h e p r e s e n t e d t h e m as m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e r i g h t s . S p e c i a l p r o t e c t i o n for w o m e n c o n t r a d i c t s E q u a l O p p o r t u n i t y l e g i s l a t i o n . V i l m a H u n t , a s p e c i a l i s t in r e s e a r c h i a s c i e n t i s t s p e c i a l i s i n g in a g e n t s w h i c h c a n d a m a g e the f o e t u s w a r n e d w o m e n t h a t t h e i r m o s t v u l n e r a b l e m o m e n t s w e r e d u r i n g the f i r s t fo u r w e e k s of p r e g n a n c y ,w h e n t h e y w e r e u s u a l l y u n a w a r e of t h e i r s t a t e . T h e c o n f l i c t i n g e x h o r t a t i o n s a p p e a r e d to be a c a s e of 'one s t e p f o r w a r d , t w o s t e p s b a c k .'

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

In a s u b m i s s i o n to the C o m m i s s i o n on H e a l t h S a f e t y a n d W e l f a r e at W o r k in Ire l a n d , t h e C o u n c i l for the S t u t u s of W o m e n p r o p o s e d th a t s u b s t a n c e s k n o w n to be d a m a g i n g to w o m e n s r e p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s , s h o u l d be r e m o v e d f r o m t h e w o r k p l a c e ( J a c k s o n ; 1 9 8 1 ) . T h e C o m m i s s i o n in its f i n a l R e p o r t s t a t e d : " It is o u r v i e w th a t e x p o s u r e to h a z a r d o u s m a t e r i e l s s h o u l d be r e d u c e d to the l o w e s t t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y f e a s i ­ b l e l e v e l . " ( C o m m i s s i o n ; 1 9 8 3 , 2 2 6 ) T h i s of c o u r s e m e r e l y b f g s the q u e s t i o n o f w h o or w h a t d e t m i n e s a t e c h n o l g i c a l l y f e a s i b l e l e vel of l o w e x p o s u r e , and by w hat c r i t e r i a ? To g e t a r o u n d s o m e o f the p r o b l e m s o f t o x i c e x p o s u r e e m p l o y e r l i a b i l i t y , a n u m b e r of l a r g e U . S . c h e m i c a l c o r p o r a t i o n s h a v e p r a c t i c e d g e n e t i c s c r e e n i n g of p o t e n t i a l a n d c u r r e n t e m p l o y ­ e e s . B y e x a m i n i n g b l o o d a n d t i s s u e , m e d i c a l c o n s u l t a n t s to t h e c o m ­ p a n i e s h o p e to d e t e c t g r o u p s of w o r k e r s w h o w o u l d be m o r e v u l n e r ­ a b l e to c e r t a i n d i s e a s e s and h e a l t h d a m a g e . D o w C h e m i c a l s a n d Du P o n t h a v e b o t h u n d e r t a k e n g e n e t i c s c r e e n i n g of w o r k e r s . T h i s h a s g i v e n r i s e to a m o s t h e a t e d d e b a t e as to w h e t h e r g e n e t i c s c r e e n ­ ing is a c t u a l l y p o s s i b l e , a s w e l l as w h e t h e r it is d e s i r a b l e ,e t h i c a l or l e g a l ( N e w Y o r k T i m e s ; 1 9 8 0 ) . d 5 l o g i c of s u c h p r a c ­ t i c e s is w o r t h e x t r a p o l a t i n g . D r J o h n K W e i s b u r g e r of the A m e r i c a n H e a l t h F o u n d a t i o n s u g g e s t e d as far b a c k as 1977 th a t h i r i n g o l d e r e m p l o y e e s c o u l d h e l p r e s o l v e the p r o b l e m of t o x i c e x p o s u r e w h e r e c a n c e r i n d u c i n g a g e n t s w a s i n v o l v e d ( S e v e r o ; 1 9 8 0 ) . W r i t i n g in the j o u r n a l of the A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y , h e s t a t e d : " W e s h o u l d c o n s i d e r d o s a g e and t i m e t o g e t h e r w h e n s e l e c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s w h e r e e x p o s u r e to c a r c i n o g e n s

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n a n d R e p r o d u c t i v e R i g h t s p a g e 16 m i g h t o c c u r . . . In o l d e r p e r s o n s , l o w t o t a l d o s e s w o u l d be p o s s i b l e o v e r the r e m a i n i n g y e a r s of e m p l o y m e n t s i n c e the t o t a l l i f e s p a n for c a n c e r d e v e l o p m e n t w o u l d be l i m ­ ite d " . ( S e v e r e , N e w Y o r k T i m e s . F e b r u a r y 3rd 1 9 8 0 ) . Wei s b u r g e r ' s p r o p o s a l e v a d e s the E q u a l O p p o r t u n i t i e s d i l e m m a by p r o p o s i n g th a t o n e r e g a r d s o l d e r w o r k e r s as e x p e n d a b l e as far as h e a l t h is c o n c e r n e d . H e a l t h s c r e e n i n g is a l r e a d y a s t a n d a r d p e r s o n n e l p r o c e d u r e for jo b s a c r o s s a w i d e s p e c t r u m of the p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s e c ­ t o r s . S o m e o v e r s e a s c o m p a n i e s in I r e l a n d r e q u i r e a m e d i c a l e x a m i ­ n a t i o n by the c o m p a n y d o c t o r , a c o l o u r b l i n d n e s s t e s t a n d a se l f d e c l a r a t i o n by p o t e n t i a l e m p l o y e e s t h a t t h e y h a v e not e v e r s u f ­ f e r e d f r o m a n u m b e r of d i s o r d e r s s u c h as m i g r a i n e ,a s t h m a , or a l l e r g i e s . F a l s c in f o r m a t i o n in t h i s r e g a r d is g r o u n d s for d i s ­ m i s s a l . G e n e t i c s c r e e n i n g is a r a t h e r m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d e x t e n s i o n of t h e s e procedure's w h i c h are a l r e a d y in p o s i t i o n . T h e w i d e s p r e a d u s e of h e a l t h s c r e e n i n g of e m p l o y e e s as o p p o s e d to the r e d u c t i o n of h e a l t h r i s k in the w o r k p l a c e c o u l d a l t e r r a d i c a l l y the h e a l t h p r o f i l e of ‘ i n d u s t r i a l w o r k f o r c e s c o m p a r e d to the n o n ­ e m p l o y e d . T h us' a co m p a n y e m p l o y i n g a w o r k f o r c e in a g i v e n g e o ­ g r a p h i c a r e a and s e l e c t i n g o n l y the m o s t h e a l t h y , m i g h t , w i t h e f f e c t i v e s e-r e c n i n g ,e m p l o y o n l y the m o s t r o b u s t and r e s i l i e n t p e r s o n s of t h i s c a t c h m e n t a r e a . H o w e v e r , i n the e v e n t of e n v i r o n ­ m e n t a l p o l l u t i o n f r o m the s a m e p l a n t v i a l e a k a g e s , h a u l a g e a c c i ­ d e n t s , s p i l l s and a c c i d e n t a l air b o r n e p o 1 1 u t i o n ,the s u r r o u n d i n g p o p u l a t i o n w i l l be c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y M O R E v u l n e r a b l e , s i n c e the l o c a l r e s i d e n t s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s ( e x c l u d i n g f a c t o r y w o r k e r s ) w i l l be c o m p o s e d of the v e r y y o u n g , the e l d e r l y , t h e r e j e c t e d e m p l o y ­

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

e e s , r e s i d e n t s w i t h p o o r h e a l t h r e c o r d s and so on. A c o r o l ­ la r y , t h e r e f o r e , o f s c r e e n i n g the u n h e a l t h y O U T of o n e ' s w o r k f o r c e is the r e t e n t i o n IN the c o m m u n i t y of the w e a k e r a n d m o r e v u l n e r a ­ ble. H o w e v e r the p r o b l e m s of e v a c u a t i n g s u c h a p o p u l a t i o n in the e v e n t of a t o x i c l e a k w e r e i l l u s t r a t e d in the c a s e of the U n i o n C a r b i d e d i s a s t e r in B h o p a l , I n d i a as w e l l as e a r l i e r at T h r e e M i l e I s l a n d in the U . S . M e d i a c o v e r a g e of the a c c i d e n t at the T h r e e M i l e I s l a n d n u c l e ­ ar p o w e r p l a n t w a s at p a i n s to d i r e c t i t s e l f to the s u r r o u n d i n g c o m m u n i t y w h o b e l i e v e d t h e m s e l v e s to be at r i s k f r o m e x p o s u r e to a i r b o r n e r a d i o a c t i v e s u b s t a n c e s . A p a r t i c u l a r h a z a r d w a s the r e l e a s e of the r a d i o n u c l e i d e I o d i n e w h i c h is a t t r a c t e d to the t h y r o i d g l a n d w h e r e it t e n d s to c o n c e n t r a t e . T h i s w o u l d be d a m a g ­ ing to h u m a n s as w e l l as to t h e g r o w i n g f o e t u s of p r e g n a n t m o t h ­ er s . F o l l o w i n g the a c c i d e n t , 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n s e v a c u a t e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h o u t o f f i c i a l a s s i s t a n c e . P r e g n a n t m o t h e r s a n d s m a l l c h i l d r e n w e r e a d v i s e d to e v a c u a t e t h e m s e l v e s a f t e r a w a r n i n g of the d e s i r ­ a b i l i t y of t h i s w a s i s s u e d at a l o c a l P r e s s C o n f e r e n c e b y s c i e n ­ t i s t E r n e s t S t e r n g l a s s ( S t e r n g 1 a s s ; 1981 ) .T h e s h e l t e r to w h i c h s o m e m o t h e r s w e n t w a s o n l y f i v e m i l e s f r o m the a f f e c t e d p l a n t and w e l l w i t h i n the ' d a n g e r ' z o n e . G o v e r n m e n t s p o k e s p e o p l e s t r e s s e d at the t i m e and s i n c e , t h a t n o o n e d i e d at T h r e e M i l e I s l a n d . T h i s is s t r o n g l y d i s p u t e d by S t e r n g l a s s ( 1 9 8 1 ;241 — 27 5 ) w h o a l l e g e s th a t a t t e m p t s w e r e m a d e to a l t e r the U.S. M o n t h l y V i t a l S t a t i s t i c s on B i r t h s a n d D e a t h s . F o l l o w i n g the ' e r r o r s ' he d e t e c t e d in the

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n and R e p r o d u c t i v e R i g h t s p a g e 18 r e t u r n s , a d j u s t m e n t s w e r e m a d e to the s t a t i s t i c s . F r om h i s o w n s t u d y of d a t a f r o m l o c a l m a t e r n i t y h o s p i t a l s , h e e s t i m a t e s t h a t i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y r o s e by 9 3 % in the m o n t h s a f t e r the H a r r i s b u r g a c c i d e n t .C a u s e s of i n f a n t d e a t h w e r e :p r e m a t u r i t y ,u n d e r w e i g h t ,and r e s p i r a t o r y d i f f i c u l t i e s . It w a s n o t p o s s i b l e to e s t i m a t e h o w m a n y p r e g n a n t .women s o u g h t t h e r a p e u t i c a b o r t i o n s c o m p a r e d to p r e v i o u s p e r i o d s , s i n c e the d a t a in the o p i n i o n of S t e r n g l a s s , a r e a l s o d e f e c t i v e . D e s p i t e the k n o w n d a n g e r s of r a d i a t i o n e x p o s u r e a n d the s e v e r i t y of the T h r e e M i l e I s l a n d A c c i d e n t , r e p o r t s of g o v e r n m e n t s p o k e s p e r s o n s and the r e a c t o r o w n e r s p e r s i s t e n t l y d o w n p l a y e d a n y p o t e n t i a l for h e a l t h h a z a r d by p e r s i s t e n t c o m p a r i ­ s o n s of e x p o s u r e l e v e l s to t h a t of a 'c h e s t X - R a y s ' and ' D e n t a l X - R a y s ' ( L e v i d o v ; 1 9 7 9 , 8"5 ) . T h e r e is a f e a r t h a t r a i s i n g the t h e m e of r e p r o d u c t i v e f r e e d o m m a y l e g i t i m i s e r e s t r i c t e d a c c e s s to c o m p r e h e n s i v e b i r t h c o n t r o l s e r v i c e s or a p p e a r to d e m e a n e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y 1 e g i s 1 a t i o n .T h i s is a r e a l d i l e m m a . I n the c a s e of l a w s to p r o t e c t w o m e n ' s r e p r o ­ d u c t i v e ri g h t s " T h e d i f f i c u l t y is in i d e n t i f y i n g d i s c r i m i n a t o r y l e g ­ i s l a t i o n w i t h a v a l i d m e d i c a l or s o c i a l p u r p o s e and d i s t i n g u i s h i n g it f r o m th a t w h i c h m e r e l y i m p o s e s an u n e c c e s s a r y r e s t r i c t i o n u p o n e q u a l i t y of o p p o r t u n i t y " ( B a r r e t t : ; 9 7 8 , 6 0 ) . On F e b r u a r y 2nd 1985 a H i g h C o u r t c a s e o p e n e d in D u b l i n I r e l a n d . T h e p l a i n t i f f s w e r e a d a i r y f a r m e r a n d h i s f a m i l y . T h e a c c u s e d w e r e the M e r c k , S h a r p a n d D o h m e C h e m i c a l C o r p o r a t i o n of N e w J e r s e y U. S . a n d t h e i r s u b s i d i a r y p l a n t in I r e l a n d l o c a t e d in the f e r t i l e a g r i c u l t u r a l v a l l e y of the G o l d e n V a l e in T i p p e r ­

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

a r y . O v e r a p e r i o d of y e a r s , t h e f a r m e r ' s c a t t l e h a v e b e e n d y i n g of a m y s t e r i o u s d i s e a s e . H e t h i n k s it is c a u s e d by a i r b o r n e p o l l u t i o n c o m i n g f r o m the f a c t o r y w h i c h m a n u f a c t u r e s b u l k c h e m i c a l s in t o c o m p o u n d s f o r d r u g s . II is c a t t l e h a v e g i v e n b i r t h to m o n s t e r c a l v e s , n u m e r o u s m u l t i p l e b i r t h s , and w e a k c a l v e s w h o d i e d at b i r t h . D u r i n g the c o u r t c a s e , e v i d e n c e w a s p r e s e n t e d t h a t M e r c k , S h a r p e and D o h m e h a d r e p e a t e d l y e m i t t e d t o x i c g a s e s i n t o the v a l l e y a b o v e the l e v e l s p e r m i t t e d in t h e i r p l a n n i n g p e r m i s ­ s i o n T h i s w a s o c c u r i n g at a t i m e w h e n t h e h o r m o n e c y c l e s of the c a t t l e , b o t h c o w s a n d b u l l s , h a d b e c o m e d i s r u p t e d . M a s s spec: tome?- try and l i c h e n ( b o t a n y ) t e s t s c o m m i s s i o n e d by the f a r m e r r e v e a l e d t h a t both, a n i m a l a n d p l a n t l i f e w e r e s e v e r e l y p o l l u t e d and p o i s o n e d by i n d u s t r i a l c h e m i c a l s . O t h e r t e s t s r e v e a l e d t r a c e s of the l e t h a l c o n t a m i n a n t D i o x i n in the v a l l e y . T h e f a r m e r lost h i s c a s e a n d h a s l o d g e d an a p p e a l to the S u p r e m e C o u r t in D u b l i n . L o c a l l y , s o m e f a r m e r s h o p e t h a t t h i s is n o t ' I r e l a n d ' s S c v c s o ' and h a v e b e e n r e a d i n g the I t a l i a n e v e n t s w i t h i n t e r e s t . O t h e r s c o m p a r e it to B r i t i s h N u c l e a r F u e l s W i n d s c a l e p l a n t w i t h its p e r ­ s i s t e n t l e a k s of r a d i o a c t i v e s u b s t a n c e s i n t o the I r i s h S e a . Y e t o t h e r s w o n d e r w h e t h e r c h e m i c a l s w h i c h , in t h e i r o p i n i o n m a y h a v e r e p r o d u c t i v e and m u t a g e n i c e f f e c t s on c a t t l e , c o u l d a l s o be i n t e f e r i n g w i t h h u m a n s . T h e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s u n a n s w e r e d . No s t u d ­ ies of h u m a n h e a l t h in the a f f e c t e d a r e a h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d out.

o n e of the W i n d s c a l e a c c i d e n t s .

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n and R e p r o d u c t i v e R i g h t s p a g e 20 C O N C L U S I O N S I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n h a s a l w a y s b r o u g h t in its w a k e s e c o n d a r y and h a r m f u l c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h i s is n o t w h a t is u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n in th i s p a p e r . T h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s a t i o n of t o x i c c a p i t a l is b r i n g i n g to n o n - i n d u s t r i a l re g i o n s of the w o r l d e x p o s u r e s to r e p r o d u c t i o n ­ d a m a g i n g s u b s t a n c e s w i t h o u t the b e n e f i t s of i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n , or s c i e n t i f i c i n f r a s t r u c t u r e to e v a l u a t e the m e r i t s and n e g a t i v e s of s p e c i f i c i n s t a l l a t i o n s . T h e e x p o r t of c e r t a i n t y p e s of c a p i t a l is c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d , s o m e w o u l d s a y d e t e r m i n e d b y , t h e s t r e n g t h of the e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d h e a l t h a n d s a f e t y l o b b y in the i n d u s t r i a l ­ i s e d c o u n t r i e s :of the N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . T h e r i s e of w o m e n ' s s h a r e of j o b s in s e l e c t e d i n d u s t r i a l b r a n c h e s at a t i m e w h e n w o m e n s e e k e q u a l i t y of o p p o r t u n i t y and the r i g h t to c o n t i n u e t h e i r w o r k i n g l i v e s alo-ng w i t h c h i l d r e a r i n g o p e n s u p a n e w set of s t r u g g l e s for w o m e n to c r e a t e a w o r k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s a f e e n o u g h for w o m e n a n d for m e n . T h e r e l o c a t i o n of i n d u s t r i e s to s e l e c t e d i n d u s t r i alisifig c o u n t r i e s w i l l t r a n s f e r r e p r o d u c t i v e h a z ­ a r d s , r e s i s t e d b y s o c i a l m o v e m e n t s , t r a d e u n i o n s a n d c i v i l s u i t s in the c o u n t r y of o r i g i n , to a r e a s and r e g i o n s u n p r e p a r e d a n d as yet u n e x p o s o d to s u c h h a z a r d s . T h e l o c a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s of s o m e b r a n c h e s of i n d u s t r y c o m b i n e d w i t h the r i s e of y o u n g w o m e n in III W o r l d i n d u s t r i a l w o r k f o r c e s h a s s h i f t e d the d e b a t e on h a z a r d o u s i n d u s t r y to a n e w c o n c e r n for r e p r o d u c t i v e f r e e d o m in the III W o r l d . is o c c u r i n g at a t i m e w h e n m a j o r w o r l d o r g a n i s a t i o n s are c o n c e r n e d at the p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h of s o m e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . T h e m a t t e r is f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d b y the f a c t th a t in

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

s e v e r a l of t h e s e n e w i n d u s t r i a l i s i n g c o u n t r i e s and r e g i o n s : M e x i c o , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , a n d H o n g K o n g to a n e x t e n t , t h e s t r e n g t h of the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h h a s b l o c k e d d e v e l o p m e n t s in b i r t h c o n t r o l p r o g r a m m e s . I n the e v e n t of m a j o r t o x i c a c c i d e n t s ,a b o r t i o n is d i f f i c u l t to a v a i l of a n d i n d e e d m i g h t n o t be a c h o s e n o p t i o n a m o n g r e l i g o u s m i n d e d p e o p l e s in the p o p u l a t i o n s at r i s k . In the w o r d s of O i l C h e m i c a l and A t o m i c W o r k e r s ' A n t h o n y M a z z o c h i : " W o r k e r s a r e g o i n g to f i n d o u t t h a t b e c a u s e of t h e i r l a b o u r the c h i l d r e n t h e y w o r k e d for and h o p e d w o u l d h a v e a b e t t e r l i f e , w i l l i n s t e a d h a v e a b n o r m a l i ­ t i e s . T h e r e n e v e r w a s an e r a l i k e the e i g h t i e s w i l l b e . P e o p l e w i l l see the d a m a g e t h a t h a s b e e n d o n e " ( N e w Y o r k T i m e s ; 1 9 8 0 ) . :E"

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n and R e p r o d u c t i v e R i g h t s p a g e 22 R E F E R E N C E S B a r r e t t ,B.N. W . L . H o w e l l s . S a f e t y and H e a l t h at the W o r k ­ p l a c e : U n i t e d K i n g d o m M i d d l e s e x P o l y t e c h n i c . L o n d o n . 1 9 7 8 . p . 60. B e r m a n , D a n i e l M . D e a t h on the J o b . O c c u p a t i o n a l H e a l t h and S a f e t y S t r u g g l e s in the U n i t e d S t a t e s . M o n t h l y R e v i e w P r e s s . 1978. B i c h l e r ,J o y c e .D E S D a u g h t e r .A v o n B o o k s . N e w Y o r k . 1981. B i s i 1 1 i 3 t J e a n n e . M i c h e l e F i e l o u x . F e m m e s d u e T i e r s M o n d e . S c y c o - m o r . P a r i s . 1 9 8 3 . p p 6 7 - 8 3 . C a l g a n o . A l f r e d o E r i c . J e a n - M i c h e l J o k o b o w i c z . L e M o n o l o g u e N o r d Sud. S y c o m o r . P a r i s . 1981. C a s t e l m a n . B a r r . y I . T h e E x p o r t of H a z a r d o u s F a c t o r i e s to D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s i n : I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of H e a l t h S e r v i c e s . v o l 9 . n o . 4. 1 9 7 9 . p p 5 6 9 - 6 0 6 . C a s t e l m a n . M i c h a e l ." W h y J o h n n y C a n ' t H a v e C h i l d r e n . " M o t h e r J o n e s . ( M o n t h l y ) S a n F r a n c i s c o . A p r i l . 1 9 8 2 . pp 14 - 1 8 . C e n s u s of the P o p u l a t i o n . 1 9 8 1 . G o v e r n m e n t P u b l i c a t i o n s . D u b l i n . C l a r k e . A d e l e . " S u b t l e F o r m s of S t e r i l i s a t i o n A b u s e " in T e s t T u b e W o m e n by R. A r d i t t i , R . D u e l l i K l e i n a n d S . M i n d e n ( e d s ) P a n d o r a P r e s s . U . K . 1 9 8 4 . p 189. C o l l i e r . S t e v e and W i l l E l l s w o r t h . S u n d a y T i m e s . J u l y 3 1 i s t . l 9 8 3 . p 17. C o m m i s s i o n on H e a l t h W e l f a r e and S a f e t y at W o r k . R e p o r t . G o v e r n m e n t Publ i c a t i o n s .D u b l i n . 1983. C o n t a m i n a t e d C r o w . S u f f e r tire C h i l d r c n - C h e m i c a l T h r e a t s to F e r t i l ­ i t y . D u b l i n . 1982 E u r o s t a t . T h e E c o n o m i c and S o c i a l P o s i t i o n of W o m e n in the C o m m u ­ n i t y . L u x e m b o u r g . 1 9 8 1 . T a b 1 e 37. D o w i e . M i r k . " G y n o c i d o - T h e C o r p o r a t e C r i m e of the C e n t u r y " in M o t h ­ er J o n e s . S a n F r a n c i s c o . N o v e m b e r , 1979. ( S p e c i a l R e p r i n t ) E g g e l i n g F. C , M o r g e n r o t h . H . G e i l i n g . S a f e t y and H e a l t h at the W o r k ­ p l a c e : G e r m a n y . E u r o p e a n F o u n d a t i o n for t h e I m p r o v e m e n t of L i v i n g and W o r k i n g C o n d i t i o n s . D u b l i n . 1978. E l s o n . D i a n e and R u t h P e a r s o n . T h e L a t e s t P h a s e in the I n t e r n a t i o ­ n a l i s a t i o n of C a p i t a l a n d its I m p l i c a t i o n s for W o m e n in the T h i r d W o r l d . I n s t i t u t e of D e v e l o p m e n t S t u d i e s . U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x . J ! n e 1 9 8 D .

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.