Detection of colorectal cancer biomarkers in the presence of interfering gases

ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect

Sensors

and

Actuators

B:

Chemical

j ou rn a l h o m ep a g e :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / s n b

Detection

of

colorectal

cancer

biomarkers

in

the

presence

of

interfering

gases

夽

G.

Zonta

_,

_G.

_Anania

_,

_B.

_Fabbri

_,

_A.

_Gaiardo

_,

_S.

_Gherardi

_,

A.

Giberti

_,

_V.

_Guidi

_,

_N.

_Landini

_,

_C.

_Malagù

a_{DepartmentofPhysicsandEarthScience,UniversityofFerrara,ViaSaragat1/c,44122Ferrara,Italy} b_{MISTE-Rs.c.r.l.,ViaP.Gobetti101,40129Bologna,Italy}

c_{CNR-INO–IstitutoNazionalediOttica,LargoEnricoFermi6,50124Firenze,Italy}

d_{DepartmentofMorphology,SurgeryandExperimentalMedicine,UniversityofFerrara,ViaLuigiBorsari,46,44121Ferrara,Italy} e_{MNF–MicroNanoFacility,BrunoKesslerFoundation,ViaSommarive18,38123Trento,Italy}

a

r

t

i

c

l

e

i

n

f

o

Articlehistory:

Availableonline18May2015 Keywords: VOC Colorectalcancer Sensor Benzene 1-Iodo-nonane Decanal

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b

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Medicalstudieshaveshownthattumorgrowthisaccompaniedbyproteinchangesthatmayleadtothe peroxidationofthecellmembrane,withconsequentemissionofvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs). VOCscanbedetectedthroughbreathorintestinalgasesandarebiomarkersforcolorectalcancer(CRC). TheanalysisofVOCsrepresentsanon-invasiveandpotentiallyinexpensivepre-screeningtechnique.An arrayofchemoresistivegassensors,basedonscreen-printedMetalOXide(MOX)semiconductingfilms, hasbeenselectedtoidentifygaseouscompoundsofoncologicalinterest,i.e.benzene,1-iodo-nonane anddecanal,fromthemaininterferersthatcanbefoundintheintestine.MOXsensorsareabletodetect concentrationsdowntoabout10thppb,asexperimentallyproveninpreviousworks,sotheycanidentify veryslightdifferencesinconcentrationamonggasmixtures.Inthisworkithasbeenproventhatthearray usedisabletoidentifytumormarkerssingularlyandincombinationwithothergasesbothinwetand dryconditions.Moreover,thesensorschosencandiscriminatetargetVOCsfrominterferersevenatlow concentrations.

©2015ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved.

1. Introduction

Nano-materialscanofferpromisingnon-invasivemethodsto detectand preventcancer[1].It isknownthatVOCs emissions, producedbytheperoxidationofthecellmembraneorbycellular metabolism,arelinkedtotumorpresenceandgrowthandtheycan bedetecteddirectlyfromtheheadspaceofcancercellsorthrough exhaledbreath[2,3].Indeed,changesinthebloodchemistrylead to measurablemodifications in the breath composition due to exchangesinsidethelungs,e.g.intherangeof20–100ppbfor sev-eralVOCs[4],aswellasinfecesfromnormaldigestion[5].Aimof thisworkistostudythedetectionofVOCsindicatorsofCRC, iden-tifyingthemostselectivesensorsforthesecompounds,inorderto analyzeintestinalgasesinwhichthesebiomarkersshouldconvey.

夽 SelectedpaperspresentedatEUROSENSORS2014,theXXVIIIeditionofthe conferenceseries,Brescia,Italy,September7–10,2014.

∗ Correspondingauthorat:DepartmentofPhysicsandEarthScience,University ofFerrara,ViaSaragat1/c,44122Ferrara,Italy.Tel.:+390532974286.

E-mailaddress:giulia.zonta@unife.it(G.Zonta).

ThemostrelevantVOCswhichmayindicateCRCpresenceare ben-zenecompounds,1-iodo-nonane(C9H19I)anddecanal(C10H20O)

[4–6].ThemaingasesthatcaninterfereinthiscontextareH2,CH4,

H2S,SO2,N2,NO2andNO,thesebeingthemaincomponentsofthe

intestinalgasmixture.

2. Materialandmethods

2.1. Sensorsproperties

WetestedseveralMOXforthisdedicatedexperiment,andthe selectedsensingmaterials,themostpromisingones,asconfirmed bythereporteddata,arelistedinTable1.Sensorsarepreparedvia screen-printingtechnique,afterthedepositionoftheMOXpaste onaluminasubstrate.Theyareprovided witha heatermadeof platinum onthebackside,whilethecontactsaremadeof gold. Thescreen-printingprocedureisreportedinPrintedfilms:Materials scienceandapplicationsinsensors,electronicsandphotonics[11].

Atypicalscreenconsistsofanetwork offinelytwistedsteel wires(of100␮m),stretchedoveraframeofaluminum.Sensors havebeenelectricallycharacterizedinalaboratorysetupusinggas http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2015.04.080

Fig.1. Schemeoftheexperimentalsetupforgasesfrombottles.Thebottlesare connectedtomassflowcontrollers.Thefirstlineconveysthetargetgas(e.g.C6H6

orinterferers),thesecondlineconveysdryair,thethirdoneisemployedoncethe measureistakeninwetconditions.Airandgasesarriveatthesensorschamber.

Fig.2. Laboratorysetup.

bottlesasoriginforgastargetsandinterferences.Thesystemis

sketchedinFig.1,whilethesetupfortheacquisitionofthesignal

isshowninFig.2.

WeselectedZnO(withtwodifferentthermaltreatments,650 and850◦C),foursolid solutionsofSnO2 andTiO2,asolutionof

TiO2,Ta2O5andvanadiumoxideandasolutionofSnO2,TiO2and

Nb2TiO7(allthesematerialweretreatedthermallyat650◦C).The

annealingtemperaturessynthesis and structural,morphological and thermal characterizations of these nanostructured materi-als are reported in literature [7–9]. The increase of the firing temperatureis directly related tothe increase of theradius of thenano-spherescomposingthesensingmaterial. Aftertesting MOX sensors, in previous works [10,11], with firing tempera-turesrangingbetween650and950◦C,wehavechosenthefiring

temperatures650◦C (for tin/titanium-oxide-based sensors) and 850◦C (for the zinc-oxide-based sensor) as the ones at which theygivethehighest response. Themost commonformulation forscreen-printablepasteislistedinTab.11.9ofthebookPrinted films:Materialsscienceandapplicationsinsensors,electronicsand photonics[13].Asreportedonpag.298ofthebook,specificpaste compositionsarehighlyproprietary.Thethicknessofthesensing layersisabout30␮m(thickfilmsensors)andtheywereobtained byscreen-printpastessynthetizedfromthesepowders(byadding aproperamountoforganicvehicles)ontominiaturizedalumina substratesequippedwithpre-depositedelectrodesandtheheater [12].Thegassensingmeasurementswereperformedbymeansof theflow-throughtechnique[13–15].

Responsesfromsensorsaregivenbythedimensionlessformula:

R= Vplateau

Vbaseline,

(1) whichremovesallthedependenceofthesensorsresponseonthe geometry.Fig.3showsanexampleofsensorsresponsetoC6H6

beforenormalization.Thematerialcharacterizationwascarriedout byusingscanningelectronmicroscopy(SEM).ASEMimageofthe filmisshowninFig.4toappreciatethemorphology.

2.2. Experimentalsetup

Thesensorswerelocatedintoagasflowchamber,insidewhich anartificialatmospherewereinjectedandcontrolledbypc-driven mass-flowcontrollers.Thegaseswerefromcertifiedbottlesand

Fig.5.SubtractionbetweensuccessiveplateausofN2anddrysyntheticair

inter-ferences,normalizedovertheirbaseline.Theshowsthedifferenceofresponses forthattemperaturetothevariation,foraddition,of5sccmofO2inthe500sccm

ofthechamber.

Fig.6.SubtractionbetweensuccessiveplateausofN2andwetsyntheticair

inter-ferences,normalizedovertheirbaseline.Theshowsthedifferenceofresponses forthattemperaturetothevariation,foraddition,of5sccmofO2inthe500sccm

ofthechamber.

Fig.7. Analysisofthetotalandpartialresponserates(ratiobetweenresponses)of thesensorsarraytoC6H6(5ppm)inamixtureofCH4(10ppm),H2(60ppm)and

dryair(N2:80%,O2:20%).Humidityisusedasaninterferer.

Fig.8.analysisofthetotalandpartialresponserates(ratiobetweenresponses)of thesensorsarraytoC6H6(2ppm)inamixtureofCH4(10ppm),H2(60ppm)and

wetair(N2:80%,O2:20%,RH:38%).

Fig.9. SensorresponsestoC6H6(2ppm)insideamixtureofwetair(RH∼20%)and

twominorintestinalinterferinggasesNO2(2ppm)andH2S(20ppm).

Tempera-turechosenaretheonesatwhichthesensorresponsestoNO2becomenegligible.

Benzeneiswelldetectedintothispartialinterferingambient.

Fig.10.SensorresponsestoC6H6(2ppm)insideamixtureofwetair(RH∼34%)and

twominorintestinalinterferinggasesNO(2ppm)andSO2(2ppm).Temperature

chosenaretheonesatwhichthesensorresponsestoNObecomenegligible.Benzene iswelldetectedintothispartialinterferingambient.

thevaporsof1-iodo-nonaneanddecanalweresuppliedbymeans ofabubblerwiththeproperamountoftheliquids.Theschemeof theexperimentalsetupisshowninFig.5publishedinourprevious workMalagùetal.[1].

Fig.11.Sensorresponses,asafunctionoftime,toSO2(1stpeak),C6H6+SO2+NO(2ndpeak),C6H6+SO2+NO+wetair(3rdpeak),C6H6(4thpeak)indryconditions.

TemperaturechosenaretheonesatwhichthesensorresponsestoNObecomenegligible.

Fig.12.Sensorresponses,asafunctionoftime,toH2S(1stpeak),C6H6+H2S+NO2(2ndpeak),C6H6(3rdpeak)inwetconditionsRH:20%.Temperaturechosenaretheones

atwhichthesensorresponsestoNO2becomenegligible.

Theresponse to thetarget gaseswasobserved for different workingtemperaturesbothindry(RH∼0%)andinwetconditions (18%<RH<60%).Choosingthemostfavorabletemperaturesofeach sensorforbenzenedetection,theintestinalstandardgasmixture

wasapproximatelyreproducedintothesensorschamber.CO2 is

notconsideredbecauseitiswellknownthatitishardlydetectedby chemoresistivesensors[13].Duringtheexperimenttesting mea-surementsweredoneondryandwetairwiththepurposetocheck

Fig.14.SensorresponsestoC9H19Iindryconditions.Temperaturesrangesbetween350and600◦Cwithstepsof50◦C.Underparenthesisisshownthequantityofreagent

(moles)takenforeachmeasure.

thedifferencesofresponseonthevariationofhumidity, operat-ingtemperature,andoxidationofthefilms.Itisimportanttostate theeffectsofthevariationsofoxygenonthesensorsresponsesfor threemainreasons:(i)intheintestinetherearevariationsof oxy-genproductionduetothedigestive,bacterialandcellularactivity; (ii)therearesomechemicalreactionthatoccurbetweenoxygen andothercompoundsbothintheintestineandinthe experimen-talsetup;(iii)somebottlesusedintheexperimentaltestscannot containoxygenforsafetyreasonsbutcontainN2(i.e.H2).Forthese

reasonsthetotalvolumeofthechamberwasfilledwithN2andO2

indifferentconcentrations,usingatfirstaflowofsyntheticdry orwetair with20%O2 and80%N2.Then,withtheadditionof

aflowofpureN2andtheloweringofthesyntheticairflow,the

ratiobetweenO2andN2inthechamberwasmodified(increasing

O2volumeconcentrationof1%),obtainingsoadetailedanalysis

ofthedisturbancefromenvironmentalchangesand differences onmetaloxidefilms(Figs.5and6).Wedefinedwiththesymbol

thedifferencebetweenresponsesinthetwocasesdescribed before.

Regardingdecanaland1-iodo-nonane,itisimportanttonotice that thereported number of moles represents an upper limit, obtainedfromthesubtractioninweightofthedropsofcompounds fromthepipette;duetotheuncontrollabilityoftheevaporative processandthenon-hermeticallockupofthegasbubbler,partof thedosecanbeassumednottohavereachedthesensorsatall.

Testswith1-iodo-nonaneweremadeindryconditions,usingan emptygasbubblertoevaporateit;nosolventswereusedtohaste theevaporationofC9H19I,duetothehighresponsesofsensorsto

alcoholsandotherorganicreagentslikedichloromethane(CH2Cl2).

Theweightofthereagentwasmeasuredwithaprecisionbalance, tocalculatethenumberofmolesandtoobtainanaveragevalueof theconcentration.Toidentifythebestdetectingtemperaturefor eachtypeofsensingmaterial,wetestedtheresponseatseveral workingtemperatures(350,400,450,500,550,600◦C).

Fig.15.SensorresponsestoC10H20Oindryconditions.Temperaturesrangesbetween350and600◦Cwithstepsof50◦C.Underparenthesisisshownthequantityofreagent

NOweremadebothindryandwetconditions.Theconcentrations oftheseinterfereswere20ppmforH2Sand2ppmforallothers,to

reproducerealconcentrationsintheintestine[16].Measurements weremadeatthebestworkingtemperatureforeachsensor(Tbest)

tohavethehigherselectivityforbenzenewithrespecttothe con-tributionofinterferes.ObservingFigs.11and12itisevidentthat, bothinwetanddryconditions,thesensorsresponsestobenzene isconsiderablyhighercomparedtothatofinterferers.These inter-fererswerechosenbecausetheyaregasotransmitters(NO) [17] normallypresentinhumangut,productsofthebacterialactivity inhumanstomachandintestine(NOxfamily[17–19])orofhighly

reactivedigestionprocesses(H2S).

SO2wastestedtoverifytheoccurringofthechemicalreaction

2H2S+3O2→2H2O+2SO2, (2)

whichrepresentsthecombustionofH2Swhichhappensathigh

temperatures on the surface of the sensing films (H2S

auto-combustionoccursat260◦C)[20,21].Itssignatureisvisiblefrom theinitialpeakofresponse beforereachingtheplateau,then it graduallyreduceswithtime,duetotheincreasingrelative humid-itycausedbythesurfacereaction(1)(Fig.13).

3.2. 1-Iodo-nonane(C9H19I)

ObservingFig.14,theZnO850sensor(zincoxide,firedat850◦C) andSTN(tin,tantalum,niobiumoxides)aretheonesthatgivethe bestresponsestothiscompound,confirmingresultsfortin oxide-basedsensorsofapreviouswork[1],inwetconditions.Humidity doesnotchangethetrendoftheresponsesto1-iodo-nonanebut reducesonly their value. TiTaV, which is selective to benzene, showsalowresponsetothiscompound.1-iodo-nonaneissensitive tolight,soallthedroppingproceduresandweightmeasurements havebeendoneinconditionsofdarknesstopreservetheoriginal stateofthecompound[22].

3.3. Decanal(C10H20O)

Testswithdecanalweremadeindryambientwiththesame pro-cedureusedfor1-iodo-nonaneandwiththesamesensorsarray. ResponsesaresummarizedinFig.15.ThesensorsST20650,STN andST25650arethebestrespondingonestodecanal.This evi-dencehighlightsthepropertyoftinoxide-basedfilmstohaveahigh responsetothisVOC,insteadTiTaVdoesnotshowmuchaffinityto it.Aswith1-iodo-nonane,theweighinganddepositionofthedrops ofdecanalhavebeendoneindarkness;C10H20Oisinfactalsoair

sensitive,butitisstilllightactivatingtheprocessofauto-oxidation leadingtofirstperoxo-acidsproductionandthustoalterationon thecompound[23].

Table2

SensorresponsesattheirbestworkingtemperaturetovariousVOC.Responsesare givenasratesbetweenthetensionsmeasuredfortheplateausovertheiroriginal baseline.

Sensors Temperature(◦C) Gastarget Response

TiTaV 450 Benzene 1.9 ZnO850 450 1-Iodo-nonane 56.9 STN 450 1-Iodo-nonane 45.1 ST20650 450 Decanal 58.4 STN 450 Decanal 41.6 ST25650 450 Decanal 34.8 ZnO650 450 Decanal 31.6

3.4. Interferencetestsinwetair:C9H19IandC10H20O

We made a test with 1-iodo-nonane (2.57×10−4mol) and

decanal (7.46×10−4mol)in combination, in wet conditions,to

checkiftheinterferenceof thetwoVOCs canalterthesensors

responsesobserved in the previousmeasurements.The chosen

workingtemperaturewasthesameforallsensors(450◦C).Results

are shown in Fig.16. The response of tin oxide-based sensors

remainshighwhiletheZnO850,themostsensitivematerialfor 1-iodo-nonane,showsalowresponse.

4. Conclusions

Asetofsensorsmadeofsingleandmixedmetaloxideshasbeen selectedtodetectbenzene,1-iodo-nonaneanddecanal.Anarray ofsensorswasthenobtainedcombiningdifferentmaterials work-ingattheirbesttemperatures,whichprovedtobehighlyselective tothesegases,alsoinabackgroundofrealisticconcentrationsof H2, CH4, H2S, SO2, N2,NO2 and NO,indifferent environmental

conditions.TiTaVshowedthehighestselectivitytoC6H6 against

primaryinterferersasH2andCH4,emergingasthebestsensorfor

thisbiomarker.Testsonaldehydes(1-iodo-nonaneanddecanal) showedrefractorinessofTiTaVonrespondingtothisfamilyof com-pounds,whiletinoxideandzincoxide-basedsensors(inparticular, ZnO850andSTNfor1-iodo-nonaneandST20650,STNandST25 650for decanal)arepreferablefor thedetectionofthiskindof markers.Infacttheirrelativeresponsesareupto20timeshigher (Figs.13and14)thanthoseofTiTaV.

According to these results, we proved that, even for really lowconcentrations(2–5ppmforbenzene,anddosesontheorder of 10−4mol of 1-iodo-nonane and decanal), and withdifferent temperatureandhumidityconditions,chemoresistivesensorscan showhugeresponsesoncesetattheirproperworking tempera-tures(Table2).Thisconfirmstheapplicabilityofchemoresistive gas sensors as tumor marker detectors, leading to interesting

possibilitiestoenhancethehealthsystemandimprovingchances forpreventivescreeningoftumors.

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GiuliaZontaShereceivedtheBachelor’sDegreeinPhysicsandAstrophysicsin December2010(110/110cumlaude)andtheMaster’sDegreeinPhysicsinOctober

2013(110/110),attheUniversityofFerrara.InJanuary2014shestartedherPh.D.in MatterPhysics,workingwiththeSensorsTeam,coordinatedbyDr.CesareMalagù. IntheAprilofthesameyearsheobtainedtherecognition“FerraraSchoolofPhysics”, thatrewardstheinternationalityofherMaster’sthesiswork.Currentlyherresearch focusesonthestudyofthephysic-chemicalbehaviorofchemoresistive nanostruc-turedgassensors,putincontactwithvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)ofmedical interest.WithherteamshewonUnifeCup2013,abusinessplancompetitionthat rewardsinnovativestart-upsandStartCupEmiliaRomagna2014,withtheobjective tocreateastart-upfortherealizationofdevicesformedicalscreenings.Nowsheis theco-supervisoroftwostudentswhoareworkingfortheBachelor’sandMaster’s DegreeinPhysics,respectively.

GabrieleAnaniawasbornin1962,Italy.In2013heresultedadequatefortherole ofAssociatedprofessorincompetitiveexamofScientificNationalAbilitation,in sector06/C1–GeneralSurgery(Bando2012DDn.222/2012).In2001heresulted winnerofthetitleofacademicresearcherreservedto“UniversitàdegliStudidi Ferrara”personnelwithalltherequirementsaskedbythelaw4/1999declared withL.D.n.159on26/09/2000.1stlevelmedicalsupervisoratsurgerydepartment of“AziendaOspedale-UniversitàS.AnnadiFerrara”.In1999hewasassignedat Surgeryclinicsectionofsurgery,radiologyandanestheticsciencesdepartmentof “FacoltàdiMedicinaeChirurgiadell’UniversitàdegliStudidiFerrara”directedby Prof.IppolitoDonini.NowhehastheroleofAssociatedProfessorattheUniversityof Ferrara.

BarbaraFabbriSheobtainedherMasterDegreeinPhysicsatUniversityofFerrara in2011.CurrentlysheisaPhDstudentinvolvedinthefieldofgassensorsand micromachining.

AndreaGaiardoHeobtainedhisDegreeinChemistryattheUniversityofFerrarain 2011andtheMaster’sDegreeinChemicalSciencesattheUniversityofFerrarain 2013.Now,hisworkisfocusedinthefieldofinnovativeinorganicsemiconductors forapplicationsingassensing.HestartedhisPhDinPhysicsattheUniversityof FerrarainNovember2014.

SandroGherardiBachelorinPhysicsTechnologiesattheUniversityofFerrarain 2002.ResearchactivitycarriedoutattheSensorsandSemiconductorslaboratoryof theUniversityofFerraraaboutgassensingandindustrialapplicationsofmonitoring devicesbynanostructuredsemiconductorbasedsensors.

AlessioGibertiBachelorinTheoreticalPhysicsattheUniversityofFerrarain2000, heobtainedPhDinPhysicsofMatterin2004atthePhysicsDepartmentofthe UniversityofFerrara.HisresearchsincePhDisfocusedonthefieldofsemiconductor gassensorsbasedonnanostructuredmetaloxides,withparticularinteresttoward theelectricalandselectivityproperties.

VincenzoGuidiBachelorinPhysicsattheUniversityofFerrarain1990,fellowat “BudkerInstituteforNuclearPhysics”ofNovosibirsk(Russia)in1991.Thesisof doc-torateinexperimentalphysicsatLegnaroNationalLaboratoriesin1994.Researcher inexperimentalphysicsatUniversityofFerrara.Researchactivity,carriedoutatthe SensorsandSemiconductorslaboratoryoftheUniversityofFerrara,hasconsisted ofinvestigationsonbasicphenomenainsemiconductorsandtopractical imple-mentationsofsensingdevices.Authorofmorethan140articlesinpeer-reviewed journalsandofmorethan100contributionstotheproceedingsofinternational conferences,reviewerand/oreditorsofnumerousjournalsofPhysicsand Electron-ics,organizerofseveralnationalandinternationalconferencesandeditorofthe proceedings.

NicolòLandiniBachelorinPhysicsandAstrophisicsattheUniversityofFerrarain 2011.HeisagraduatingstudentinPhysics(Master’sDegree)underthesupervision ofDr.CesareMalagù,workingwithchemoresistivegassensorswithbiomedical applications.

CesareMalagùCesareMalagùwasbornin1974inFerrara,Italy.Hereceivedadegree inPhysicsattheUniversityofFerrarain1997(SummaCumLaude)andthePh.D. degreeinexperimentalphysicsin2001.HehasbeenteachingGeneralPhysicssince 2001andworksasaLecturerandAggregatedProfessorsince2007.Hisresearch activityismainlybasedonmodelingoftransportphenomenainnanostructured semiconductors.Hisexpertiseisinthickfilmtechnologyappliedtoenvironmental andenergeticsustainability.Hehasmorethan60papersinpeerreviewedjournals (Hirschindex23)andnumerousproceedingsandinvitedlectures,moreoverheis intheeditorialboardofseveraljournals.Hecoordinatesthesensorsgroupatthe UniversityofFerraraandteachesGeneralPhysicsIIandacourseofSensorsatthe DepartmentofPhysicsandEarthScience.