Retirement Difficulties in Spanish Athletes: The Importance of the Career Path

(1)

Running head: PREDICTING DIFFICULTIES AFTER RETIREMENT

Predicting Retirement Difficulties in Elite Spanish Athletes 1 2 3 4 5 6

(2)

Abstract

Objective: The aim of the present study was to analyze the relative importance of voluntary

termination, pre-retirement planning, satisfaction with one's sport achievements, and type of career path on the difficulties perceived by athletes in the transition out of sport.

Design and method: A descriptive, quantitative research study with the use of a survey was

carried out. An online questionnaire based on both the Social and Working Integration Questionnaire previously applied by the National Olympic Committee of Spain (Barriopedro, Muniesa, & López de Subijana, 2016) and the Spanish adaptation (González, & Torregrosa, 2009) of the Athlete Retirement Questionnaire (Alfermann, Stambulova, & Zemaityte, 2004) was sent to Spain’s retired elite athletes. Four hundred seventy-seven elite athletes (298 males and 179 females) completed the questionnaire.

Results: Athletes who retired involuntarily reported more problems with their professional

career, health, and finances. Planning the retirement in advance predicts difficulties in the areas of studies, family, and leisure, while satisfaction with one's sport achievements predicts the degree of difficulty in areas such as social network, leisure, and finances. As expected, career path predicted difficulties related to studies and finances.

Conclusions: Factors identified in literature as connected with quality in retirement affect this

quality of the adaptation process in different areas. This study would help sport psychologists not only to predict quality in sport retirement but also to prevent specific difficulties associated with athletes’ retirement process.

Keywords: elite sport; retirement; factors; difficulties.

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

(3)

Predicting Difficulties after Retirement in Elite Spanish Athletes

Research on career transitions out of sport has been growing steadily over the past three decades. In the early stages, researchers focused on causes and consequences of athletes’ retirement and then moved on to identifying predictors of the quality of athletes’ career transitions (Wylleman, Alfermann, & Lavallee, 2004). Nowadays, career research is following a culturally informed approach rather than a universal method that could be transferred to any culture (Stambulova, 2012, p. 177). Taking the major cultural traditions (North American, Australian, Western European, and Eastern European) and the emerging cultures (Asian, African, and South American) as references, concerns about athletes’ lives beyond their sport career is clear (Stambulova, Alfermann, Statler, & Côté, 2009; Stambulova, & Ryba, 2013; Stambulova, & Ryba, 2014).

The career transition models used in the athletic retirement studies (Gordon, 1995; Schlossberg, 1981; Stambulova, 2003; Taylor, & Ogilvie, 1994) characterized athletic retirement as a process rather than as a singular event. These models emphasize pre-conditions related to career termination, perceived demands during transition, coping strategies, and consequences of transition. Furthermore, the holistic model in career development is well recognized today (Wylleman, & Lavallee, 2004). This model considers the athlete to be a unique entity and it takes into account various dimensions of the athlete: his or her sport performance, development as person, relationships with others, academic/vocational dimension, and finances (Wylleman, Reints, & De Knop, 2013).

The last systematic review (Park, Lavallee, & Tod, 2013), which included studies conducted from the 1960’s to 2010, identified different correlates with respect to the quality of athletes’ career transitions out of sport. They categorized the topics into two themes based on two models proposed by Gordon (1995) and Taylor and Ogilvie (1994): factors related to

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

(4)

the quality of career transition and available resources during the career transition. Voluntariness of retirement decision, career/personal development, sport career achievement, and educational status are included among the factors related to the quality of career transition while pre-retirement planning is included in the available resources category.

Several studies have found that voluntariness of retirement decision, related to the degree of control athletes have over their decision to retire, is positively associated with the quality of career transition (Alfermann, 2000; Alfermann, & Gross, 1997; Cecić Erpič, 1999, 2001; Cecić Erpič,Wylleman, & Zupančič, 2004; McPherson, 1980; Webb, Nasco, Riley, & Headrick, 1998; Werthner & Orlick, 1986). Athletes who experienced forced retirement have shown high levels of negative emotions (Fortunato, & Marchant, 1999; Zaichkowsky, King, & McCarthy, 2000), a sense of betrayal and social exclusion (McKenna, & Thomas, 2007), and a loss of identity (Lotysz, & Short, 2004).

Pre-retirement planning has the largest influence on adaptation to post-sport life (Pearson, & Petitpas, 1990; Stambulova et al., 2009). A wide range of difficulties associated with career termination has been related to athletes’ resistance to pre-retirement planning (Ogilvie, & Taylor, 1993; Werthner, & Orlick, 1986). Planning could be considered a cognitive structure before career termination, on academic, psychological, and economic issues. Pre-retirement planning has been positively related to the quality of athletes’ career transitions in most previous studies (Park et al., 2013). Athletes who planned their retirement were able to adapt more quickly, reported greater life satisfaction, and showed more positive and fewer negative emotional reactions to career termination (Alfermann, Stambulova, & Zemaityte, 2004; Stambulova, Stephan, & Jäphag, 2007; Torregrosa, Boixadós, Valiente, & Cruz, 2004). 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77

(5)

Previous studies highlighted that planning was associated with the athletes’ vocational adjustment to life after their sport career (Coakley, 2006). Moreover, financial planning directly influenced the quality of the athletes' life adjustments (Fortunato, & Marchant, 1999). As planning and setting goals in sport is a complex task and does not depend solely on the athlete, when athletes have planned and set goals in areas outside of sport, it has felt easier and more comfortable (Warriner, & Lavallee, 2008; Young, Pearce, Kane, & Pain, 2006).

Although few studies considered sport achievements as a variable, all of them reported a positive correlation between them and the quality of the career transition (Park et al., 2013). Career termination appeared to be facilitated by a feeling of achievement regarding their sport career (Debois, Ledon, & Wylleman, 2015). Retired athletes who had succeeded in their sport showed fewer occupational difficulties (Cecić Erpič et al., 2004). In contrast, those who had not achieved their expected sporting goals expressed a high degree of psychosocial difficulties and difficulties in organizing their lives outside of sport (Chow, 2001; Koukouris, 1994).

The European Union coined the term “dual career” (DC) as the career that an elite athlete has in terms of studying and/or working while at the same time pursuing high-performance sport (European Commission, 2012). As one of the aims of Europe 2020 is to raise the employment rate, the promotion of athletes’ dual careers could be seen as an aligned strategy. If this population reaches a higher level of education, their employment possibilities would also increase.

Several studies reported that a dual career benefits retirement transition (Borggrefe, & Cachay, 2012; Lupo, Tessitore, Capranica, Rauter, & Doupona Topic, 2012; Debois, Ledon, & Wylleman, 2015; Torregrosa, Ramis, Pallarés, Azocar, & Selva, 2015; Tshube, & Felz, 2015). Vocational development and education can be seen as individual resources that can

78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101

(6)

help athletes to overcome transition barriers in the coping process (Stambulova et al., 2009). Nowadays, combining sport and studies has become important as higher education is a key element for achieving a successful occupation after sport. Studies that have examined educational level have reported positive correlations with the quality of athletes’ career transitions, and low educational achievements were related to vocational difficulties during the career transition process (Marthinus, 2007; Stronach, & Adair, 2010). Furthermore, the dual career promotes developing multiple identities, which contributes to an easier and faster adaptation to the post-sport life (Aquilina, 2013; Borggrefe, & Carchay, 2012; Torregrosa et al., 2015).

Since some of those factors involved in the quality of a retirement are not independent (i.e. pre-retirement planning and voluntary termination), the aim of the present study was to analyze the relative importance of each of those four factors (voluntary termination, pre-retirement planning, satisfaction with one's sport achievements, and type of career path) on the quality of athletic retirement, expressed as sports career termination difficulties in seven areas: professional career, studies, family, social network, leisure, health, and finances.

Methods Participants

The population targeted in this study was the retired elite athletes named in the Spanish Government's official list. A purposive sampling was applied to over 3605 elite athletes from that population. From the total questionnaires sent, 554 were completed. Seventy-seven questionnaires were not included in the data analysis: 48 were from elite athletes that were retired for less than 2 years and 29 did not inform about their age or when they retired. The final sample was composed of 477 elite athletes, 298 males (62.5%) and 179

102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125

(7)

females (37.5%). The average time elapsed since retirement was 9±6 years. Assuming the most unfavorable situation (p=q), the maximum error associated with a 95% confidence interval (CI) was ±4.3%. The participants were from 32 different sports: athletics, archery, badminton, baseball, basketball, boxing, canoeing, cycling, fencing, football, gymnastics, golf, handball, hockey, judo, modern pentathlon, horse riding, rowing, rugby, sailing, synchronized swimming, shooting, softball, swimming, taekwondo, tennis, triathlon, volleyball, water polo, weightlifting, winter sports, and wrestling.

Measures

An “ad hoc” questionnaire was developed based on both the Social and Working Integration Questionnaire applied by Spain's National Olympic Committee (Barriopedro, Muniesa, & López de Subijana, 2016) and the Spanish adaptation (González, & Torregrosa, 2009) of the Athlete Retirement Questionnaire (ARQ) (Alfermann, Stambulova, & Zemaityte, 2004). In order to assess the suitability and understanding of the questions, a pilot study with 15 athletes was carried out. The final version of the questionnaire was composed of 55 questions (54 with multiple choice, yes/no, or ranking responses and 1 open question) divided into five sections: sport profile, sociodemographic profile, academic profile, employment, the retirement process, and current relationship with sport.

The type of career path was assessed following the model of Pallarés, Azocar, Torregrosa, Selva and Ramis (2011). Participants were asked to describe their situation during the mastery stage. The four possible answers were: a) I was solely devoted to sport, b) I combined studies and sport but I gave priority to sport, c) I combined studies and sport but I gave priority to studies, and d) I combined sport and a working activity. Voluntariness was presented as a dichotomous question (involuntary/voluntary) as was planning the retirement in advance (yes/no). The degree of satisfaction with athletic achievements was assessed on a

126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149

(8)

five-point scale (completely dissatisfied, moderately dissatisfied, difficult to answer, moderately satisfied, completely satisfied). Difficulties perceived by athletes after the transition out of sport in seven different areas (professional career, studies, family, social network, leisure, health, and economy) were assessed on a five-point Likert scale (from 1= no difficulties to 5 = severe difficulties).

Procedure

Descriptive, quantitative research that utilized a survey and applied an on-line questionnaire as the data-collecting tool was carried out. Contacting the sample from the retired elite Spanish athlete population was done through different stakeholders: the Spanish Sport Council, national sport federations, and elite athlete associations. Specifically, a snowball sampling technique was utilized (Patton, 1990). Prior to completing the questionnaire, the athletes were informed of the study as well as the fact that their participation was voluntary and anonymous. Data were collected from December 2015 to March 2016.

Data Analysis

Data analysis was done with the SPSS 20.0 version. Chi-square tests were used to analyze the bivariate relationship between the four potential predictors, and Cramer’s V (Vc) was used as the index for the effect size. The first step in building the multivariable multinomial logistic model involved fitting simple multinomial models between each of the potential predictors and the various difficulties variables. Data referring to degree of difficulty were collapsed into three different categories: “no difficulties” included levels 1 and 2 of the original Likert scale, “moderate difficulties” comprised level 3, and “severe difficulties” included levels 4 and 5. “No difficulties” was selected as the reference category. The dependent variables were the difficulties after retirement in seven areas. Career path,

150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173

(9)

voluntariness, planning, and satisfaction with sport achievements were the predictor variables. For the purpose of facilitating the regression analysis, degree of satisfaction was recoded into two categories (satisfied/dissatisfied). The satisfied category comprised “moderately satisfied” and “completely satisfied” answers while dissatisfied included “completely dissatisfied”, “moderately dissatisfied” and “difficult to answer” responses. Variables that were significantly associated with the outcome were considered for inclusion in the multivariable multinomial model. Odds ratios (OR) and confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated for all variables in the final models. Categories selected as references for calculating odds ratios were “solely sport” for career path, “voluntary” for voluntariness, “planned” for planning, and “satisfied” for satisfaction with sport achievements. Significance was established at .05.

Results

Eighty-three percent of the athletes retired voluntarily and 39.3% planned their retirement. The majority of them confirmed that they were satisfied with their sport achievements (78.6%). While 62.6% of the retired athletes studied and developed their sport career at the same time during their mastery stage, 35.3% of them gave priority to sport, and the rest gave no priority. Further, 21.4% combined work and sport, and 16% were focused only on sport.

Tables 1 and 2 show the associations between the predictors. Voluntariness was associated with planning (χ2_{(1) = 29.70; p <.001; Vc=.250). Among the athletes that retired} from sport voluntarily, there were a higher number of subjects that planned their retirement (44.8%). Further, among those who finished voluntarily, a higher number tended to be satisfied with their results in competitions (χ2_{(1) = 6.72; p = .010; Vc=.119). Voluntariness} was not associated with career path (χ2_{(3) = 6.61; p = .085).}

174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197

(10)

A larger number of respondents experienced satisfaction with their sport achievements when they planned their retirement (χ2_{(1) = 19.94; p < .001; Vc=.205). Finally, career path} was not associated with planning the retirement in advance (χ2 (3) = 3.25; p = .354) or satisfaction with sport achievements (χ2_{(3) = 0.09; p = .993).}

Table 1. The association between Voluntariness and Planning, Achievement Satisfaction, and Career Path Voluntariness (%) Voluntary (N=395) Involuntary(N=81) Total χ2 Vc Planning No 55.2 37.7 60.7 29.70* .250 Yes 44.8 12.3 39.3 Achievement satisfaction Dissatisfied 19.1 32.1 21.4 6.72* .119 Satisfied 80.9 67.9 78.6 Career Path Solely Sport 16.2 16.0 16.2 6.61 Sport>Studies 32.7 46.9 35.2 Sport-Studies 28.7 19.8 27.2 Sport-Work 22.3 17.3 21.5 * Statistically significant

Table 2. The association between Planning and Achievement Satisfaction and Career Path

Planning (%) No (N=289) Yes (N=187) _Total χ2 _Vc Achievement Satisfaction Dissatisfied 28.0 10.8 21.3 19.94* .205 Satisfied 72.0 89.2 78.7 Career Path Solely Sport 16.6 15.5 16.2 3.25 Sport>Studies 33.2 38.5 35.2 Sport-Studies 29.8 23.0 27.2 Sport-Work 20.4 23.0 21.5 Achievement Satisfaction No (N=101) Yes (N=372) _χ2 _Vc Career Path Solely Sport 16.8 15.9 16.2 0.09 Sport>Studies 34.7 35.5 35.2 Sport-Studies 27.7 27.2 27.2 Sport-Work 20.8 21.5 21.5 * Statistically significant

Table 3 shows the distribution of the degree of difficulty after retirement in seven areas for the four considered predictors. In the ﬁrst stage, when the models of the multinomial logistic regression were computed with one variable at each step, the results showed that

198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210

(11)

planning had significant simple associations with studies (χ2_{(2)= 8.75; p =.013), family} (χ2_{(2)= 12.94; p = .002), leisure (χ}2_{(2)= 9.09; p = .011), and financial (χ}2_{(2)= 6.41; p = .040)} difficulties. Voluntariness was significantly associated with health (χ2_{(2)= 20.49; p < .001)} and financial (χ2_{(2)= 18.19; p < .001) difficulties. Satisfaction with sport achievements was} associated with social network (χ2_{(2)= 6.16; p = .046), leisure (χ}2_{(2)= 12.87; p = .002), and} financial (χ2_{(2)= 9.76; p = .008) difficulties. Finally, career path was associated with studies} (χ2_{(6)= 18.51; p = .005) and financial (χ}2_{(6)= 22.88; p = .001) difficulties.}

Table 3. Bivariate relationship of predictors with Difficulties after Retirement in seven areas

Degree of difficulty (%)

Professional Career Difficulties No Moderate Severe χ2 _p

Planning Unplanned (N=273) 70.00 14.70 15.40 3.91 .142 Planned (N=172) 77.90 9.30 12.80 Voluntariness Involuntary (N=74) 56.80 21.60 21.60 11.50 .003 Voluntary (N=370) 76.50 10.80 12.70 Achievement Satisfaction Dissatisfied (N=93) 68.80 12.90 18.30 1.44 .487 Satisfied (N=351) 74.10 12.50 13.40

Career Path Solely Sport (N=69) 68.10 11.60 20.30 11.14 .084

Sport>Studies(N=159) 66.00 16.40 17.60

Sport-Studies (N=126) 78.60 11.10 10.30

Sport-Work (N=90) 81.10 8.90 10.00

Studies Difficulties No Moderate Severe χ2 _p

Sport>Studies(N=157) 76.40 12.10 11.50

Sport-Studies (N=122) 85.20 6.60 8.20

Sport- Work (N=87) 90.70 2.30 7.00

Family Difficulties No Moderate Severe χ2 _p

Planning Unplanned (N=277) 82.30 6.10 11.60 12.94 .002 Planned (N=167) 84.40 12.00 3.60 Voluntariness Involuntary (N=75) 82.70 8.00 9.30 0.12 .942 Voluntary (N=368) 83.40 8.40 8.20 Achievement Satisfaction Dissatisfied (N=94) 80.90 9.60 9.60 0.41 .914 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218

(12)

Satisfied (N=349) 83.70 8.00 8.30

Sport>Studies(N=157) 84.70 8.90 6.40

Sport-Studies (N=126) 84.90 9.50 5.60

Sport- Work (N=90) 85.60 5.60 8.90

Social Network Difficulties No Moderate Severe χ2 _p

Sport>Studies(N=159) 67.90 16.40 15.70 Sport-Studies (N=124) 68.50 14.50 16.90 Sport- Work (N=89) 80.90 10.10 9.00 Table 3. (Continued) Degree of difficulty (%)

Leisure Difficulties No Moderate Severe χ2 _p

Planning Unplanned (N=276) 65.60 14.10 20.30 9.09 .011

Planned (N=172) 75.60 14.50 9.90

Voluntariness Involuntary (N=76) 60.50 15.80 23.70 4.04 .113

Voluntary (N=371) 71.40 13.70 14.80

Achievement satisfaction Dissatisfied (N=95) 54.70 17.90 27.40 12.87 .002

Satisfied (N=352) 73.30 13.40 13.40

Sport>Studies(N=160) 68.80 16.30 15.00

Sport-Studies (N=127) 66.90 15.00 18.10

Sport-Work (N=91) 71.40 14.30 14.30

Health Difficulties No Moderate Severe χ2 _p

Planned (N=171) 71.90 17.50 10.50

Voluntariness Involuntary (N=76) 50.00 17.10 32.90 20.49 <.001

Voluntary (N=364) 71.70 17.00 11.30

Satisfied (N=351) 70.10 16.00 14.00

Sport > Studies (N=157) 64.30 17.80 17.80

Sport-Studies (N=124) 72.60 13.70 13.70

Sport-Work (N=91) 70.30 18.70 11.00

Financial Difficulties No Moderate Severe χ2 _p

Planned (N=169) 70.40 16.00 13.60

Voluntariness Involuntary (N=74) 45.90 16.20 37.80 18.19 <.001

219 220

(13)

Voluntary (N=368) 67.70 16.80 15.50

Satisfied (N=349) 67.60 15.80 16.60

Sport > Studies (N=159) 57.90 16.40 25.80

Sport-Studies (N=124) 70.20 19.40 10.50

Sport-Work (N=89) 76.40 9.00 14.60

In the second stage, variables that were significantly associated with the outcome variables were given consideration for their inclusion in the multivariable multinomial model. Table 4 shows likelihood ratio chi-square tests for overall models and partial effects and goodness-of-fit chi-square statistics. Odds ratios (OR) and confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated for all variables in the final models (Table 5).

Table 4. Model and ﬁt information for multivariable multinomial logistic model

Likelihood ratio test Goodness-of-fit test

Predictor Χ2 _df _p _χ2 _df _p

Studies Overall Model 27.70 8 0.001 9.11 6 .168

Planning 9.19 2 0.010

Career Path 18.84 6 0.004

Leisure Overall Model 18.37 4 0.001 4.71 2 .095

Planning 5.50 2 0.064

Ach. satisfaction 9.45 2 0.009

Finances Overall Model 46.33 12 <.001 32.50 42 .854

Planning 1.55 2 0.460

Voluntariness 9.25 2 0.010

Ach. satisfaction 5.76 2 0.056

Career Path 20.53 6 0.002

Only voluntariness in retirement significantly contributed to predicting difficulties in the athletes' professional careers. Those athletes that retired from sport involuntarily were more likely than those that quit voluntarily to perceive moderate (OR= 2.70; 95% CI: 1.39-5.24) or severe difficulties in their professional career (OR= 2.29; 95% CI: 1.19-4.41).

Difficulties with studies were predicted significantly by planning one's retirement and the career path chosen during the sport life. Athletes with an unplanned retirement were more

221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235

(14)

likely than those with a planned retirement to perceive moderate (OR= 2.64; 95% CI: 1.16-6.02) or severe difficulties with studies (OR= 1.98; 95% CI: 1.01-3.92). Additionally, subjects who combined sport and work experienced both moderate (OR= 0.17; 95% CI, 0.03-0.88) and severe difficulties with studies (OR= 0.26; 95% CI: 0.09-0.72) to a lesser degree than those who focused only on sport. Athletes that combined sport and studies and placed the same priority on them suffered fewer severe difficulties in studies (OR= 0.31; 95% CI: 0.13-0.74) than those who focused only on sport.

The degree of difficulty in the area of family was only predicted by planning. Retired athletes related significantly more severe difficulty when they did not plan their post-sport career life (OR= 3.30; 95% CI: 1.35-8.09).

Table 5. Odds Ratio (OR) and 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) from Multinomial Logistic Regression Predicting Difficulties after Retirement in seven areas

Moderate Difficulties Severe Difficulties

95% CI 95% CI Professional Career OR LB UB OR LB UB Voluntariness Involuntary/Voluntary 2.70* 1.39 5.24 2.29* 1.19 4.41 Studies Planning Unplanned/Planned 2.64* 1.16 6.02 1.98* 1.00 3.92 Career Path Solely Sport 1.00 1.00 Sport-Work 0.17* 0.03 0.88 0.26* 0.09 0.72 Sport > Studies 1.09 0.43 2.79 0.51 0.23 1.12 Sport-Studies 0.48 0.16 1.42 0.31* 0.13 0.74 Family Planning Unplanned/Planned 0.53 0.27 1.04 3.30* 1.35 8.09 Social network Satisfaction Dissatisfied/satisfied 1.23 0.64 2.38 2.17* 1.19 3.93 Leisure Planning Unplanned/Planned 1.00 0.57 1.77 1.99* 1.09 3.64 Satisfaction Dissatisfied/satisfied 1.79 0.94 3.42 2.36* 1.32 4.20 Health Voluntariness Involuntary/Voluntary 1.44 0.72 2.87 4.19* 2.29 7.65 Finances 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247

(15)

Planning Unplanned/Planned 1.09 0.62 1.91 1.45 0.81 2.59 Voluntariness Involuntary/Voluntary 1.26 0.60 2.67 2.65* 1.42 4.94 Satisfaction Dissatisfied/satisfied 1.66 0.88 3.12 1.96* 1.08 3.55 Career Path Solely Sport 1.00 1.00 Sport-Work 0.27* 0.11 0.69 0.40* 0.17 0.92 Sport> Studies 0.64 0.30 1.33 0.84 0.42 1.69 Sport-Studies 0.61 0.29 1.28 0.29* 0.13 0.67 * Statistically significant

Reference group was "no difficulties perceived". Odds ratios are for "moderate difficulties" vs "no difficulties" and "severe difficulties" vs "no difficulties"

Satisfaction with sport achievements was associated with perceived difficulties in social network. Dissatisfied athletes reported significantly more severe difficulties (OR= 2.17; 95% CI: 1.19-3.93) than those who finished their sport career satisfied with their achieved goals.

The degree of difficulty in leisure was predicted by planning and by the degree of satisfaction with sport achievements. Athletes who did not plan their retirement were more likely than those who did plan their retirement to perceive severe difficulties in the area of leisure (OR= 1.99; 95% CI: 1.09-3.64). Dissatisfied athletes reported significantly more severe difficulties in leisure (OR= 2.36; 95% CI: 1.32-4.20) than those who finished their sport careers satisfied with their achieved goals.

Only voluntariness in retirement significantly contributed to predicting difficulties in health. Those athletes that retired from sport involuntarily experienced more severe difficulties related to health (OR= 4.19; 95% CI: 2.29-7.65) than those who retired from sport voluntarily.

The degree of financial difficulty was predicted by voluntariness, satisfaction with sport achievements, and career path. More severe financial difficulties were found for those

248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267

(16)

who quit sport involuntarily (OR= 2.65; 95% CI: 1.42-4.94). Dissatisfied athletes reported significantly more severe financial difficulties (OR= 1.96; 95% CI: 1.08-3.55) than those who finished their sport careers satisfied with their achieved goals. Finally, those athletes who combined sport and work experienced less moderate (OR= 0.27; 95% CI: 0.11-0.69) and severe financial difficulties (OR= 0.40; 95% CI: 0.17-0.92) than those who were solely devoted to sport. Athletes that combined sport and studies and gave them the same degree of priority showed fewer severe difficulties (OR= 0.29; 95% CI: 0.13-0.67) than those who solely devoted themselves to sport.

Discussion

This quantitative study analyzes the relative importance of each of four factors on the difficulties perceived by athletes in the transition out of sport. The four factors include: voluntary termination, pre-retirement planning, satisfaction with sport achievements, and type of career path.

A vast majority (83%) of former elite athletes retired voluntarily. Despite the evident importance of pre-retirement planning, a number of studies have found that relatively few athletes made sufficient preparations for the end of their career (Alfermann et al., 2004; Cecić Erpič et al., 2004; Fortunato, & Marchant, 1999, Gilmore, 2008). These previous findings were supported in the current study, with only thirty-nine percent of the respondents indicating that they planned for their retirement. Spanish athletes planned their retirement in advance less often than other Western European athletes (55% of elite French athletes, 67% of Swedish athletes, and 74% of German athletes), despite the resemblance between the sociocultural contexts (Alfermann et al., 2004; Stambulova et al., 2007). Nevertheless, the

number of Spanish athletes who planned their retirement is similar to those of Russian

268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290

(17)

athletes (Alfermann et al., 2004), Slovene athletes (Cecić Erpič et al., 2004), and female Scottish athletes (Gilmore, 2008).

Most of the athletes reported a high degree of satisfaction with their sport achievements, similar to that found in previous studies with Western European athletes (Alfermann et al., 2004, Stambulova et al., 2007). From the data of this sample, 83.8 % of the athletes followed a dual career (with studies or work) while 16.2% were focused solely on sport. This number is less than that cited (31.9%) in a previous study by Vilanova and Puig (2013).

These factors (voluntary termination, pre-retirement planning, satisfaction with one's sport achievements, and type of career path), identified in literature as associated with quality in retirement, are related to different areas of this adaptation process. Voluntariness predicts problems associated with professional career, health, and finances. Planning one's retirement in advance predicts difficulties in studies, family, and leisure areas; while satisfaction with sport achievements predicts the degree of difficulty in areas such as social network, leisure, and financial areas. As expected, career path predicts difficulties related to studies and finances.

Involuntarily retired athletes were 4.2 times more likely to experience severe health difficulties compared with those who retired voluntarily. This may be explained by all sport careers that were finished due to an injury. Previous studies (Park et al., 2013; Taylor, & Ogilvie, 1994, 1998) have pointed to injuries as one of the most common reasons for involuntary retirements.

Those athletes that finished their sport career involuntarily were 2.7 and 2.3 times more likely than those that finished voluntarily to perceive moderate and severe difficulties,

291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313

(18)

respectively, in their professional career, and 2.7 times more likely to perceive severe financial difficulties. This outcome is consistent with findings by Cecić Erpič et al. (2004), which show that those who retired involuntarily experienced more frequent and severe occupational difficulties. These ﬁndings are not consistent with results from related research who found that voluntary retirement was associated with significantly greater emotional and social adjustment upon career termination (Gilmore, 2008; Lavallee et al., 1997; McKenna, & Thomas, 2007) but not with financial or occupational adjustment (Lavallee et al., 1997). As expected, athletes who experienced a voluntary transition out of their sport showed a higher level of pre-retirement planning. This fact explains why pre-retirement planning does not predict financial difficulties after removing the effect of voluntariness. The capacity of voluntariness to predict difficulties associated with one's professional career and finances is congruent with the fact that voluntary retirement is often linked to starting a professional occupation or obtaining vocational training (Alfermann et al., 2004; Cecić Erpič et al., 2004; Reints, 2011; Vilanova, & Puig, 2014).

Athletes who did not plan their retirement were 2.6 and 2.0 times more likely than those with a planned retirement to perceive moderate and severe difficulties in the area of educational studies, respectively, and 3.3 times more likely to perceive severe family difficulties. Furthermore, athletes with unplanned retirement were more likely (1.99 times) than those who planned their retirement to perceive severe difficulties in leisure. Previous studies found that athletes who planned their retirement are able to adapt more quickly, report greater life satisfaction, and have better emotional reactions to career termination (Alfermann, Stambulova, & Zemaityte, 2004; Stambulova, Stephan, & Jäphag, 2007) but they fail to find differences in terms of perceived quality of retirement in the difficulties considered in the present study (Stambulova et al., 2007).

314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337

(19)

Some studies indicate that following a dual career of sport and studies may be seen as an opportunity to plan one's vocational future (Debois et al., 2015; Torregrosa et al., 2015). Others have found that it could imply a cognitive process of structuring one's future after sport career termination (Alfermann et al., 2004). However, this study found that career path was not associated with planning one's retirement in advance. This may reveal that some of these athletes are obligated to combine sport and studies, in accordance with the findings of previous studies, which reported that studying was mandatory in some families (Vilanova, & Puig, 2014). Furthermore, in Spain, financial grants to train at a high performance center are dependent on some kind of studies.

Athletes who were dissatisfied with sport achievements reported more severe difficulties in social network, leisure, and financial areas than those who finished their sport careers satisfied with their achieved goals. The athlete who was dissatisfied with his or her sport results was 2.17 times more likely to perceive severe difficulties in the area of social networking, 2.36 times more likely to perceive severe difficulties in the area of leisure, and 1.96 times more likely to perceive severe difficulties in the area of finances. These outcomes are in agreement with previous findings (Cecić Erpič et al., 2004; Chow, 2001; Koukouris, 1994) which showed that athletes who reported having achieved fewer athletic goals than expected, experienced more frequent and more severe psychological, occupational, and psychosocial difficulties.

The combination of sport training and another activity during the sport career contributes positively to the facilitation of the retirement process (Borggrefe, & Cachay, 2012; Lupo et al., 2012; Debois et al., 2015; Price et al., 2010; Torregrosa et al., 2015; Tshube, & Felz, 2015). Along these lines, the current study confirms greater difficulties reported by athletes focused solely on sport while those who worked or studied while

338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361

(20)

simultaneously training for their sport seemed to deal better with the retirement in educational and economic areas. The results predicted 2.5 times more severe and 3.7 times more moderate difficulties related to finances for subjects focused only on sport than those who combined sport and work. Athletes who focused only on sport were predicted to have 3.5 times more difficulties than those combining sport and studies in a parallel model. Many of those athletes, who combined sport and studies simultaneously, had attained a university degree.

As educational level is a key issue in finding suitable employment, the more elite athletes reach a higher educational level, the fewer problems they would have in attaining employment once their sport career is finished (Cecić Erpič et al., 2004; Murphy, Petitpas, & Brewer, 1996; Vilanova, & Puig, 2014).

Moreover, it is expected that athletes who combined sport and work acquired previous vocational training, which will be particularly valued in the labor market. This could explain why those athletes experienced fewer difficulties entering the labor market as well as fewer financial difficulties. It seems that combining their mastery stage of the sport career with a second activity (studies or work) helps athletes to develop a second career for life outside of sport (Price et al., 2010; Vilanova, & Puig, 2014).

The same trend appears with regard to difficulties related to studies. Athletes who dedicate all their time to sport are predicted to have more than three times and more than five times more severe and moderate difficulties, respectively, than those who combined sport and work as well as more than three times more severe difficulties when compared to athletes who combined studies and sport simultaneously.

362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383

(21)

The main strength of this study lies in its relatively large and homogeneous elite-level sample. The four hundred and seventy-seven retired elite athletes (all previously named to the Spanish Government's official list) contribute to a more accurate depiction of the impact of culture/sport system on athletic retirement studies from a European perspective. Regarding limitations, three should be pointed out. First of all, there is the risk of memory decay and recall bias associated with retrospective designs. Second, there is the variability of time after retiring from sport, possibly associated with changes in the social macro environment. For example, in Spain, finding a job after the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games was easier than from 2000 to the present (Campos-Izquierdo, Gonzalez-Rivera, & Taks, 2016).

Third, retirement planning is based on one item with a yes/no response that does not specify the nature of retirement planning (Stambulova et al., 2007). Qualitative research should be conducted in order to develop multiple choice questions to improve the measurement of this variable in quantitative research.

Conclusions

In-depth exploration of the difficulties perceived by athletes in the transition out of sport, and their related factors, provides information for developing support services. Although a dual career plays a crucial role in ensuring an athlete’s future, particularly for career direction after sport, it does not significantly contribute to predicting difficulties in other areas. Support programs for elite athletes based on a holistic perspective should take into account the different components of an elite athlete’s life. Voluntary retirement, retirement planning, and satisfaction with one's sport achievements might be considered as transition resources that reduce difficulties related to family, social network, leisure, and health areas; thus, they need to be given consideration in these programs. Support programs

384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406

(22)

in Spain should make an effort to provide athletes with knowledge and skills to help plan for life after a sport career, since these athletes planned their retirement in advance less often than other Western European athletes.

Acknowledgements

This research was funded by the 2015-2016 edition of the Advanced Research Grant Program of the Olympic Studies Centre of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).

References

Alfermann, D. (2000). Causes and consequences of sport career termination. In D. Lavallee, & P. Wylleman (Eds.), Career transitions in sport: International perspective (pp. 45-58). Morgantown: Fitness Information Technology.

Alfermann, D., & Gross, A. (1997). Coping with career termination: It all depends on freedom of choice. In R. Lidor, & M. Bar-Eli (Eds.), Proceedings of the ninth world

congress on sport psychology (pp. 65-67). Netanya: Wingate Institute for Physical

Education and Sport.

Alfermann, D., Stambulova, N., & Zemaityte, A. (2004). Reactions to sport career termination: A cross-national comparison of German, Lithuanian and Russian athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 5(1), 61-75.

Aquilina, D. (2013). A study of the relationship between elite athletes' educational development and sporting performance. International Journal of the History of Sport,

30(4), 374-392. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2013.765723.

Barriopedro, M., Muniesa, C.A., López de Subijana Hernández, C. (2016). Perspectiva de

407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427

(23)

Género en la Inserción Laboral de los Deportistas Olímpicos Españoles. [Gender Perspective at the working integration of the Spanish Olympic Athletes]. Cuadernos

de Psicología del Deporte, 16(1), 339-350.

Borggrefe, C., & Cachay, K. (2012). “Dual careers”: The structural coupling of elite sport and school exemplified by the German Verbundsysteme. EJSS. European Journal for

Sport and Society, 9(1/2), 57-80.

Campos-Izquierdo, A., Gonzalez-Rivera, M.D. & Taks, M. (2016). Multi-functionality and occupations of sport and physical activity professionals in Spain. European Sport

Management Quarterly, 16(1), 106-126

Cecić Erpič, S. (1999). Differences between voluntary and involuntary sport career termination. In V. Hosˇek, P. Tilinger, & L. Bilek (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th

European congress of sport psychology, Part 1 (pp. 147-149). Prague: Charles

University.

Cecić Erpič, S. (2001). Differences between traumatic and non-traumatic sports career transition. In J. Mester, G. King, H. Struder, E. Tsolakidis, & A. Osterburg (Eds.),

Book of abstracts: Perspectives and profiles (p. 433). Sixth annual congress of the European college of sport science, Cologne: Sport und Buch Strauss.

Cecić Erpič, S., Wylleman, P., & Zupancic, M. (2004). The effect of athletic and non- athletic factors on the sports career termination process. Psychology of Sport and Exercise,

5(1), 45-59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(02)00046-8.

Coakley, J. J. (1983). Leaving competitive sport: Retirement or rebirth? Quest, 35, 1-11. Chow, B. C. (2001). Moving on? Elite Hong Kong female athletes and retirement from

428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449

(24)

competitive sport. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 1, 47-81. Retrieved from http://www.aahperd.org/nagws/publications/wspaj/

Debois, N., Ledon, A., & Wylleman, P. (2015). A lifespan perspective on the dual career of elite male athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 21(4), 15-26.

European Commission. (2012). EU guidelines on dual careers of athletes: Recommended

policy actions in support of dual careers in high-performance sport. Brussels: Sport

Unit, European Commission. Education, Culture and Sport. Retrieved November 20, 2013 from: http://ec.europa.eu/sport/library/documents/c3/dual-career-guidelines-final.pdf.

Fortunato, V., & Marchant, D. (1999). Forced retirement from elite football in Australia.

Journal of Personal and Interpersonal Loss, 4, 269-280. doi:

10.1080/10811449908409735

Gilmore, O. (2008). Leaving competitive sport: Scottish female athletes’ experiences of sport

career transitions (Doctoral dissertation). University of Stirling, Scotland.

González, M. D., & Torregrosa, M. (2009). Análisis de la retirada de la competición de élite: Antecedentes, transición y consecuencias [Analysis of the elite athletes' retirement: Precedents, transition, and consequences]. Revista Iberoamericana de Psicología del

Ejercicio y del Deporte, 4(1), 93-104.

Gordon, S. (1995). Career transitions in competitive sport. In T. Moms & J. Summers (Eds.),

Sport psychology: Theory, applications and issues (pp. 474-501). Brisbane: Jacaranda

Wiley.

Koukouris, K. (1994). Constructed case studies: Athletes' perspectives of disengaging from

450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471

(25)

organized competitive sport. Sociology of Sport Journal, 11, 114-139. http://hk.humankinetics.com/SSJ/journalAbout.cfm

Lavallee, D., Gordon, S., & Grove, J. R. (1997). Retirement from sport and the loss of athletic identity. Journal of Personal and Interpersonal Loss, 2, 129-147. doi: 10.1080/10811449708414411

Lavallee, D., Grove, J. R., & Gordon, S. (1997). The causes of career termination from sport and their relationship to post-retirement adjustment among elite-amateur athletes in Australia. Australian Psychologist, 32, 131-135.

Lotysz, G.J., & Short, S.E. (2004). ‘What ever happened to....’ The effects of career termination from the National Football League. Athletic Insight, 6, 47-66. Retrieved from http://www.athleticinsight.com/Vol6Iss3/WhatEverHappened.htm

Lupo, C., Tessitore, A., Capranica, L., Rauter, S. & Doupona Topic, M. (2012). Motivation for a dual-career: Italian and Slovenian student-athletes/Motivacija Za Dvojno Kariero: Italijanski in Slovenski Studenti Sportniki. Kinesiologia Slovenica, 18(3), 47-56.

Marthinus, J. M. (2007). Psychological effects of retirement on elite athletes (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa.

McKenna, J., & Thomas, H. (2007). Enduring injustice: A case study of retirement from professional rugby union. Sport, Education, and Society, 12, 19-35. doi: 10.1080/13573320601081500

McPherson, B. P. (1980). Retirement from professional sport: The process and problems of occupational and psychological adjustment. Sociological Symposium, 30, 126-143.

472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493

(26)

Murphy, G. M., Petitpas, A. J., & Brewer, B. W. (1996). Identity foreclosure, athletic identity and career maturity in intercollegiate athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 239-246. Ogilvie, B. C., & Taylor, J. (1993). Career termination issues among elite athletes. In R. N.

Singer, M. Murphey, & L. K. Tennant (Eds.), Handbook of research on sport

psychology (pp. 761-775). New York: Macmillan.

Pallarés, S., Azócar, F., Torregrosa, M., Selva, C., & Ramis, Y. (2011). Modelos de trayectoria deportiva en waterpolo y su implicación en la transición hacia una carrera profesional alternativa [Sport trajectory models in water polo and their effect on the transition to an alternative professional career]. Cultura, Ciencia y Deporte, 7(6), 93-103.

Park, S., Tod, D., & Lavallee, D. (2012). Exploring the retirement from sport decision-making process based on the transtheoretical model. Psychology of Sport and

Exercise, 13(4), 444-453. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.02.003.

Park, S., Lavallee, D., & Tod, D. (2013). Athletes' career transition out of sport: A systematic review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(1), 22-53.

Patton, M. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Price, N., Morrison, N., & Arnold, S. (2010). Life out of the limelight: Understanding the non-sporting pursuits of elite athletes. The International Journal of Sport and

Society, 1(3), 69-79.

Pearson, R., & Petitpas, A. (1990). Transition of athletes: Pitfalls and prevention. Journal of

Counseling and Development, 69, 7-10. 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515

(27)

Reints, A. (2011) Validation of the holistic athletic career model and the identification of

variables related to athletic retirement (Doctoral dissertation). Vrije Universiteit

Brussel, Belgium.

Schlossberg, N. K. (1981). A model for analyzing human adaptation to transition. The

Counseling Psychologist, 9, 2-18.

Stambulova, N. (2003). Symptoms of a crisis-transition: A grounded theory study. In Hassmen (Eds.), SIPF Yearbook 2003. Orebro, Sweden: Orebro University.

Stambulova, N. (2009). Talent development in sport: A career transitions perspective. In E. Tsung-Min Hung, R. Lidor, & D. Hackfort (Eds.), Psychology of excellence (pp. 63-74). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.

Stambulova, N. B. (2012). Working with athletes in career transitions. In S. Hanton & S. Mellalieu (Eds.), Professional practice in sport psychology: A review (pp. 165-194). London: Routledge.

Stambulova, N., Stephan, Y., & Jäphag, U. (2007). Athletic retirement: A cross-national comparison of elite French and Swedish athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise,

8, 101-118. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.05.002

Stambulova, N. B., Alfermann, D., Statler, T., Côté, J. (2009). ISSP Position Stand: Career development and transitions of athletes. International Journal of Sport & Exercise

Psychology, 7(4), 395-412. doi:10.1080/1612197X.2009.9671916

Stambulova, N. B., & Ryba, T. V. (Eds.) (2013). Athletes’ careers across cultures. London and New York, NY: Routledge.

516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536

(28)

Stambulova, N. B., & Ryba, T. V. (2014). A critical review of career research and assistance through the cultural lens: Towards cultural praxis of athletes' careers. International

Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7(1): 1-17. doi:

10.1080/1750984X.2013.851727.

Stambulova, N., & Wylleman, P. (2014). Athletes' career development and transitions. In A. Papaioannou, & D. Hackfort (Eds.), Routledge companion to sport and exercise

psychology (pp. 605-621). London/New York: Routledge.

Stronach, M., & Adair, D. (2010). Load of the square ring: Future capital and career transition issues for elite indigenous Australian boxers. Cosmopolitan Civil Societies

Journal, 2, 46-70. Retrieved from

http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/mcs/article/viewArticle/1512

Taylor, J., & Ogilvie, B. C. (1994). A conceptual model of adaptation to retirement among athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 6, 1-20.

Taylor, J., & Ogilvie, B. (2001). Career termination among athletes. In R. N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas, & C. M. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 672-691). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Torregrosa, M., Boixadós, L., Valiente, L, & Cruz, J. (2004). Elite athletes’ image of retirement: The way to relocation in sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 5(1), 35-43. doi: 10.1016/S1469-0292(02)00052-3

Torregrosa, M., Ramis, Y., Pallarés, S., Azócar, F., & Selva, C. (2015). Olympic athletes back to retirement: A qualitative longitudinal study. Psychology of Sport and

Exercise, 21(4), 50-56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.03.003 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558

(29)

Tshube, T., & Feltz, D. L. (2015). The relationship between dual-career and post-sport career transition among elite athletes in South Africa, Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe.

Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 21(4), 109-114.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.05.005

Vilanova, A., & Puig, N. (2013). Compaginar la carrera deportiva con la carrera académica para la futura inserción laborar: ¿Una cuestión de estrategia? [Combining a career in sport with an academic career for future employability: Is it a question of strategy?].

Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 22(1), 61-68.

Vilanova, A., & Puig, N. (2014). Personal strategies for managing a second career: The experiences of Spanish Olympians. International Review for the Sociology of Sport,

42(2), 1-18.

Warriner, K., & Lavallee, D. (2008). The retirement experiences of elite female gymnasts: Self identity and the physical self. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 20, 301-317. doi: 10.1080/10413200801998564

Webb, W.M., Nasco, S.A., Riley, S., & Headrick, B. (1998). Athlete identity and reactions to retirement from sport. Journal of Sport Behavior, 21, 338-362.

Werthner, P., & Orlick, T. (1986). Retirement experiences of successful Olympic athletes.

International Journal of Sport Psychology, 17, 337-363.

Wylleman, P., Alfermann, D., & Lavallee, D. (2004). Career transition in sport: European perspectives. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 5, 7-20. doi: 10.1016/S1469- 1164 0292(02)00049-3

Wylleman, P., Reints, A., & De Knop, P. (2013). A developmental and holistic perspective

559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580

(30)

on athletic career development. In P. Sotiaradou, & V. De Bosscher (Eds.), Managing

high performance sport (pp. 159-182). New York, NY: Routledge.

Wylleman, P., & Lavallee, D. (2004). A developmental perspective on transitions faced by athletes. In M. Weiss (Ed.), Developmental sport and exercise psychology: A lifespan

perspective (pp. 507-527). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.

Young, J. A., Pearce, A. J., Kane, R., & Pain, M. (2006). Leaving the professional tennis circuit: Exploratory study of experiences and reactions from elite female athletes.

British Journal of Sport Medicine, 40, 477-483. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2005.023341

Zaichkowsky, L., King, E., & McCarthy, J. (2000). The end of an era: The case of forced transition involving Boston University football. In D. Lavallee & P. Wylleman (Eds.),

Career transitions in sport: International perspectives (pp. 195-205). Morgantown,

WV: Fitness Information Technology.

581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592