Analisi, traduzione e commento del The Progeria Handbook

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(1)Corso di Laurea Magistrale in Interpretariato e Traduzione Editoriale, Settoriale Tesi di Laurea. Analisi, traduzione e commento del The Progeria Handbook.. Relatore Prof.ssa Serena Cecco Laureando Miriam Comacchio Matricola 820823 Anno Accademico 2012 / 2013. 1.

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(3) Indice 0.1 ABSTRACT IN INGLESE . . . . . . . 3 . 0.2 ABSTRACT IN ITALIANO . . . . . . . 4 . 0.3 PREFAZIONE . . . . . . . 5 . . . . . . 8 . . . . 9 . 1.1. FATTORI EXTRATESTUALI DEL TESTO DI PARTENZA . . 10 . . . . 1. ANALISI DEL TESTO DI PARTENZA . 1.0. INTRODUZIONE AL TESTO DI PARTENZA . . ͳǤͳǤͳǤǯ/ EMITTENTE . . . . . . 10 . . 1.1.2. IL DESTINATARIO . . . . . . 11 . . 1.1.3. LA FUNZIONE DEL TESTO DI PARTENZA . . . 11 . 1.2. FATTORI INTRATESTUALI DEL TESTO DI PARTENZA . . 13 . . ͳǤʹǤͳǤǯ ǣ

(4) . . . . . 13 . 1.2.2. LA STRUTTURA DEL TESTO DI PARTENZA . . . 15 . . . 16 . . . . 17 . 1.3.1.1. IL LESSICO DELLE LINGUE SPECIALI . . . 18 . . 19 . 1.3. TIPOLOGIA TESTUALE DEL TESTO DI PARTENZA 1.3.1. LE LINGUE SPECIALI . . . 1.3.1.2. LA MORFOSINTASSI DELLE LINGUE SPECIALI ͳǤ͵ǤͳǤ͵Ǥǯ

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(7) SPECIALI . . . . . . . . 19 . 1.3.2. IL LINGUAGGIO DELLA MEDICINA . . . . 19 . . 26 . 1.3.3. TESTI MEDICI INGLESI E ITALIANI A CONFRONTO 1.4. ANALISI DEL TESTO DI PARTENZA . . . . . 30 . . . . . 33 . 1.4.2. LIVELLO MORFOSINTATTICO . . . . . 36 . 1.4.3. LIVELLO LESSICALE . . . . . . 42 . 1.4.1. LIVELLO TESTUALE . . 2. TESTO DI PARTENZA . . . . . . . . 47 . . . . . . . . 95 . 4. COMMENTO TRADUTTOLOGICO . . . . . . 148 . 3. TESTO DI ARRIVO . 1. .

(8) 4.0. INTRODUZIONE AL COMMENTO TRADUTTOLOGICO . . 149 . 4.1. LIVELLO TESTUALE . . . . 4.1.1. LA TRADUZIONE DELLE DIDASCALIE . . . . 155 . . . . 168 . 4.2. LIVELLO MORFOSINTATTICO . . . . . . 169 . 4.3. LIVELLO LESSICALE . . . . . . . 180 . . . . . . . 187 . 5.0. GLOSSARIO TRILINGUE EN-‐IT-‐ES . . . . . 188 . 5. GLOSSARIO . . . BIBLIOGRAFIA . . . . . . . . . 204 . SITOGRAFIA . . . . . . . . . 205 . 2.

(9) Abstract This Master Graduation Thesis will focus mainly on the translation Ȃ from English into Italian Ȃ of a medical text: The Progeria Handbook. It consists of a practical part Ȃ the translation itself Ȃ and of a more theoretical part which aims both at analyzing the source text in all its intra-‐linguistic and extra-‐linguistic aspects and at detecting all the solutions given to the translation problems. This paper, therefore, is divided into five main parts, each one of them reflecting a different stage of the process. The first chapter deals with the contextualization of the source text, followed by its linguistic analysis. Chapters two and three contain the source text and the target text, whereas the following chapter covers a detailed commentary of all the choices made by the translator. Finally, a three-‐language glossary displays all terms regarding progeria. 3.

(10) Abstract ° ǡ ǯ ǯǡ ǣ The Progeria Handbook. Si compone di una parte pratica, ossia la traduzione vera e propria, e di una parte teorica volta ad analizzare il testo di partenza in tutti i suoi aspetti intralinguistici ed extralinguistici e a discutere la risoluzione dei problemi traduttivi riscontrati. Il presente lavoro è pertanto diviso in cinque capitoli, ognuno dei quali riflette un passaggio specifico del processo. Il primo capitolo affronta la contestualizzazione del testo di partenza, ǯǤ I capitoli 2 e 3 contengono il testo di partenza e di arrivo, mentre il capitolo seguente costituisce un ricco commento traduttologico, dove vengono spiegate tutte le scelte operate dal traduttore. Infine, un ricco glossario trilingue riunisce tutti i termini sulla progeria incontrati durante la traduzione. . 4.

(11) Preface It is widely known that every year the international medical community produces a vast amount of texts, from the common patient charts in the hospitals worldwide, to the articles published in the most prestigious medical journals. Thus medical texts are one of the most frequently translated text types, which increases the demand for medical translators. However, it is still quite uncommon to find translators that are specialized in this field, since this kind of specialization requires further training. This is the main reason why doctors, researchers, biologists, pharmacists etc. are considered more reliable for the translation of medical texts, also given the fact that many of them master English. Yet they rarely have any training in translation and are not aware of the existence of certain strategies and stylistic norms and conventions in the target language. What is really needed here is a professional figure that combines both scientific and linguistic competence. One of the main purposes of this paper is therefore to have a starting point in the comprehension of the peculiarity of English medical texts compared to Italian medical texts, some kind of ǲtest benchǳ to lay the foundations for learning as much as possible about all linguistic aspects of this type of text in both languages. But why choose the field of medicine? The answer to this question is strongly related to the other main reason that determined the choice of this particular source text. First of all, the field of medicine is extremely fascinating and rewarding since it deals with people. Not people in general, but people who experience some kind of injury, pain or disease. Clearly, every knowledge in the field of medicine is invaluable and must be spread through communication, either written or oral. But sometimes this knowledge can be very hard to understand for common people (e.g. the patients or their families), especially if it is conveyed in a foreign language. In this case, The Progeria Handbook has a clear objective: to give families and healthcare providers of children with Progeria some guidelines regarding their medical care. The handbook is written in English and has been translated into Portuguese and Spanish, but not into Italian. An Italian translation of the Handbook would therefore be extremely useful since there are currently five children with Progeria in Italy. The Progeria Research Foundation (PRF) understands how frustrating it must be for parents of children with Progeria to not 5.

(12) be able to understand what is available to them, such as treatment recommendations to give their child a better quality of life, and therefore it provides medical information in the main language of the family. As a matter of fact, the translator has agreed to send the translated chapters to the PRF, that will print and make them available to the Italian families. At this point, the reason for choosing medical translation should be already clear: the translator wants to be part of the process that breaks down the linguistic barriers to communication between two different groups that share the ultimate goal of achieving physical health: experts in the field of medical care and patients. It is not only about breaking down these barriers though, because it is important to stress the fact that in this case the translator is dealing also with people that are uncertain about their future and about the future of their children, and that need to be treated with the right level of sensitivity: for this reason, these linguistic barriers need to be broken in the proper way. Progeria is an extremely rare and fatal disease; therefore there is little knowledge among the physicians on how to treat the patients, as well as among common people on the nature of this syndrome. As a consequence, this Thesis also aims at spreading awareness on the characteristics of this disease and on the efforts of the Progeria Research Foundation, whose inspiring work could help not only children with Progeria but also the whole aging population and people with heart disease. To quote from The Progeria Handbook: With heightened awareness and education of PRF and Progeria, more doctors will be able to properly treat children with Progeria, more people will become aware of this worthy cause, and more research will be done to further the quest for a cure. In addition, The Progeria Handbook discusses many branches of medicine, from cardiology and neurology to physical and occupational therapy, which makes it quite interesting for the translator, since she has the opportunity to test herself in various fields and to learn every single aspect related to the syndrome. This Thesis is divided into three main chapters, each one of them reflecting a different stage of the process. The first chapter is subdivided into two parts; the first one will serve as the contextualization of the source text, which is an essential 6.

(13) phase and should always be carried out prior to every translation. Here the author, the topic, the function, the structure and the target reader of the source text will be analyzed in detail. The second part of this first chapter will serve as the linguistic analysis of the source text and will include not only the typical features of this text type but the specific characteristics of The Progeria Handbook, from a morphological, syntactic and stylistic point of view. The second chapter will contain the source text itself, placed side by side with the translation. Finally, in the third chapter the translator will explain all the choices made during the translation process together with the solutions found for the problems. A three-‐language glossary follows. 7.

(14) . PART ONE: SOURCE TEXT ANALYSIS 8.

(15) 1.0. Introduction to the source text It is widely agreed that context is essential when translating, because it affects both the understanding of the source text (hereafter ST) and the production of the target text (hereafter TT). As a matter of fact, Taylor Torsello points out that il significato di un testo si definisce globalmente soltanto in relazione ad un particolare contesto, nel quale bisogna comprendere anche il ricevente e le sue caratteristiche1. Therefore, the first part of this chapter serves as the contextual background which is necessary to fully understand not only the translation choices made by the translator but also how she made them. Here we will start from ǯ extratextual and intratextual factors2 in order to give a full description of author, target audience, function, subject matter and structure of the ST. In the following paragraph, the ST will be analyzed according to its text type. It is here when the ST starts to show its peculiarity. Once the text type has been identified, it is time to give an insight on special languages in general, and on the language of medicine in particular. In addition, since the language combination of this paper (and most of all, of the translation) is English and Italian, the translator has considered worthwhile and useful to insert a comparison of the characteristics of English and Italian medical texts. In the second part of this chapter, the ST will be further classified according to the level of knowledge of sender and receiver. Later, it will be deeply analyzed in all its stylistic, textual, syntactic and lexical levels. Every single aspect will be illustrated in detail, with the help of numerous examples taken from the ST. Everything that is contained in the first chapter of this paper is useful to identify the right translation strategy, so that the translator can actually begin the transfer phase, the most important part of the translation activity. . 1 In: Cortese, G. (edited by) Tradurre i linguaggi settoriali, Torino, Edizioni Cortina, 1996, p. 90-‐91 2. Scarpa F., La traduzione specializzata. Un approccio didattico professionale, Milano, Hoepli, 2012. 9.

(16) 1.1. Extratextual factors of the ST The analysis of the extratextual factors belongs to what Scarpa describes as the prima fase preparatoria del processo traduttivo3. These factors are: x. author/sender . x. ǯtention . x. audience . x. medium/channel . x. place . x. times of text production and reception . x. motive of communication . x. function . Extratextual factors are analyzed by enquiring about the author or sender of the ȋǫȌǡǯȋǫȌ, the audience the text is directed at (to whom?), the medium or channel the text is communicated by (by which medium?), the place (where?) and time (when?) of the text production and text reception, and the motive (why?) for communication. The extratextual factors are analyzed before reading the text, simply by observing the situation in which the text is used. In this way, the reader builds up a certain expectation regarding the intratextual characteristics of the text4. In this chapter we will analyze only three factors: the sender, the target reader and the text function. . 1.1.1. The author / sender The Progeria Handbook has been developed and disclosed in 2010 thanks to the expertise of several contributors that work for or cooperate with the Progeria Research Foundation (PRF), whose headquarters is in Boston, MA. PRF was created in 1999 by the parents of a child with Progeria, Drs. Leslie Gordon and Scott Berns, in order to raise awareness, educate and help the families, their doctors, researchers and the general public about the syndrome. In addition, PRF funds medical research and runs research-‐related programs specifically aimed at finding the cause, treatments, and cure for this syndrome. PRF is therefore striving to 3 Ivi, p. 114 4 Fonte: http://spa2012.wikispaces.com/file/view/20120228_uom_intra-‐extra-‐textual-‐factors.pdf, . consultato il 17 dicembre 2013 . 10.

(17) discover the cure for Progeria, develop treatments for patients and provide programs that push the field of Progeria forward. The contributors are all doctors, specialized in different branches of medicine: gerontology, otology and laryngology, pediatrics, critical care, genetics etc. Therefore, they are all experts in the field of medicine. In addition, many families contributed to the handbook as well, with some indications and insights. . 1.1.2. The target reader Since it is about one of the rarest diseases of the world, the target audience of the ST is very narrow. ǲ ǳ beginning, The Progeria Handbook has been written for two categories of people: the families of children with Progeria, and their healthcare providers. As a consequence, it faces two opposite types of target reader, with two very different levels of knowledge. From the significant amount of medical and technical information contained in the text, the translator has deduced that the cultural level of the target audience is medium to high. But since the audience is made of two different categories, the translator must take into account that families are not experts in the field of medicine, whereas healthcare providers are professionals (and therefore experts) in medical care. The content of every chapter of the handbook is addressed directly to both these groups of readers. The two groups of readers are profoundly different not only in their ability to decode the text, but also because of their different reading approach: for the healthcare providers this approach is professional, ǲ ǳǤ n the contrary, families are more emotionally involved. . 1.1.3. The function of the ST Because it has been defined as ǲ ǳǡThe Progeria Handbook may be thought to have only an informative (referential) function. According to Newmark, the informative function focuses on external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.5 Thus, informative texts refer mainly to the extratextual (extralinguistic) reality. . 5 Newmark P., A textbook of translation, Edimburgh Gate-‐Harlow, Prentice Hall Europe, 1988, p. 40 . 11.

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(19) ǯ ǡ he extratextual references contained in The Progeria Handbook can be divided into two types: x. Theoretical information about the disease, which is simply aimed at explaining specific aspects of the syndrome in order to increase the technical and scientific knowledge of the audience. For example: 1) Children with Progeria develop contractures in all joints of the body. Additionally, changes to the bones including resorption of the distal clavicles an ǯ functional impairments. Coxa valga and acetabular dysplasia are found in virtually all children. Progression to unilateral or bilateral hip dislocation can also occur in later stages. . x. Practical information, such as advice and recommendations required by the audience to best take care of the child with Progeria. For example: 2) One of the most important things you can do is establish a relationship with ǯ Ǥͷǡ ǯ tooth erupts, your child should see a dentist Ȃpreferably a pediatric dentist. . By analyzing the ST, the translator believes that these two information types are well balanced throughout the text and, above all, that they are closely related, since theoretical information very frequently serve the practical information, which sometimes would not be understood without a previous explanation of the context. However, as Scarpa and Newmark recognize, technical and scientific texts perform other types of function because the sender wishes not only to inform the receivers but also to persuade (change their opinions and convince them that what is written is right) and motivate them to do something. Thus, even if it is widely agreed that the main function of technical and scientific writing is referential, the following functions are present in The Progeria Handbook as well: x. vocative, since, as we have just seen, it engages the receiver directly, giving them instructions, advice and recommendations on what can or cannot, should or should not be done. Therefore, the attention is focused not only on the extralinguistic reality, but also on the audience. . x. phatic, since sometimes the tone is informal . x. metalingual, for example, in the use of definitions . Leaving aside the discussion on the mere function of the ST, with this handbook PRF wants to provide families with recommendations on how to best 12.

(20) take care of their children with Progeria at all ages and stages of development. It is meant to be an invaluable resource not only for them but also for their health caretakers, in order to improve the quality of life of these young patients. . 1.2. Intratextual factors Intratextual factors belong to what Scarpa describes as the seconda fase ǯ6. These factors are: x. Subject matter . x. Content . x. Knowledge presuppositions . x. Compositions and construction . x. Non linguistic elements . x. Lexical characteristics . x. Syntactic structure . Intratextual factors are analyzed by enquiring about the subject matter the text deals with (on what subject matter?), the information or content presented in the text (what?), the knowledge presuppositions made by the author (what not?), the composition or construction of the text (in what order?), non-‐linguistic or paralinguistic elements accompanying the text (using which non verbal elements?), the lexical characteristics (in which words?) and syntactic structures (in what kind of sentences?). These factors need to be identified during the reading of the text7. In this chapter we will analyze first the subject matter and the structure (including the non linguistic elements) of the ST, whereas the lexical and syntactic characteristics will be discussed later. . 1.2.1. Subject matter: Progeria Hutchinson-‐Gilford Progeria Syndrome (HGPS), commonly known as ǲǳ, is a severe genetic condition. Its name is derived from Greek and means ǲ ǳǤ ǡ . 6 Scarpa F., La traduzione specializzata. Un approccio didattico professionale, cit., p. 114 7 http://spa2012.wikispaces.com/file/view/20120228_uom_intra-‐extra-‐textual-‐factors.pdf, . consultato il 17 dicembre 2013 . 13.

(21) HGPS, which was named after the doctors that first described it: Dr. Jonathan Hutchinson in 1886 and Dr. Hastings Gilford in 1897. It is fatal and extremely rare, since it affects approximately 1 in 8 million newborns, meaning that there are an estimated number of 200-‐250 children living with Progeria worldwide at any one time. It is characterized by an appearance of premature and accelerated aging in children, who are usually born looking healthy and by 18-‐24 months of age, or even earlier, begin to display many physical characteristics and signs of the syndrome. Although it affects both sexes equally and all different ethnic backgrounds, the children have a remarkably similar appearance, since the symptoms and signs are very similar and consistent overall. These clinical features include: x. Profound growth failure . x. Small face and pinched nose . x. Loss of body fat . x. Alopecia . x. Thin and aged-‐looking skin . x. Prominent scalp veins . x. Crowded teeth . x. Stiffness of joints . x. Hip dislocation . As all children with Progeria get older, they suffer from osteoporosis, generalized atherosclerosis, high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease and stroke, which makes this syndrome life-‐threatening. Remarkably, their intellect is unaffected ǯ . These children die of heart attacks or strokes at an average age of 13 years, with a range of about 8-‐21 years. In April 2003 the gene for Progeria was discovered: HGPS is caused by a mutation in the LMNA gene. This mutation causes the gene to produce an abnormal form of Lamin A protein called progerin, which is produced in much higher amounts in children affected by this disease. This protein disrupts the normal functioning of the nucleus of cells and causes cellular instability, which in turn leads to the process of premature aging. To date, the Progeria Research Foundation in Boston, MA has funded and co-‐coordinated three clinical trials for a 14.

(22) potential drug treatment. In September 2012, the drug involved in the first clinical trial, a farnesyltransferase inhibitor (FTI), was discovered to be the first-‐ever drug treatment for Progeria, which brings doctors, researchers, patients and families closer to a cure. . 1.2.2. Structure of the ST The Progeria Handbook is approximately 100 pages long, divided into 20 chapters (or sections) of varied length. Each chapter covers a specific branch of medicine or aspect of the disease, with the purpose of giving full insight into the syndrome. Chapters share the same structure: they all have a title followed by one or more subtitles, which coincide with the titles of the paragraphs. Each section is conceived to either be part of the whole handbook or to be a stand-‐alone document on the PRF website, which explains the presence of repetitions between chapters. In addition, The Progeria Handbook has a binding that allows to add and replace information as new sections are written in the future. By flipping through the pages, it is possible to see that information is expressed also through unordered lists (e.g. list of radiographic findings in patients). There are also several photographs; one at the beginning of every section, next to the title, depicting a child with Progeria, and the others showing a particular sign, symptom or physical characteristic related to the syndrome (e.g. pictures that show typical dental findings in patients with Progeria), with a caption below. Obviously, the use of images, photographs, graphics and tables in an informative-‐descriptive text type is extremely important. At first reading, the translator has noticed that there is a clear distinction between medical chapters and the other chapters, which regard other general aspects of the disease and of the life of children with Progeria: medical chapters are more numerous and are characterized by a more technical lexis and by the prevalence of descriptive and instructive information, whereas the remaining chapters deal more with the everyday care of these little patients and discuss the ǯ Ǥ For the purpose of this paper, not all the Handbook chapters have been translated, since only some sections about medical aspects have been chosen, which are listed below: 15.

(23) x. Chapter 2: Cardiology . x. Chapter 3: Neurology / Strokes . x. Chapter 4: Emergency Care / Critical Care . x. Chapter 5: Airway Management / Anesthesia . x. Chapter 7: Eye Care . x. Chapter 8: Audiological Evaluation . x. Chapter 9: Dental Recommendations . x. Chapter 10: Skin / Dermatology . x. Chapter 11: Bones Orthopedics . x. Chapter 12: Physical Therapy (PT) . x. Chapter 13: Occupational Therapy (OT) . . 1.3. Text type of the ST An important starting point of the translation process is to place the ST in a certain category, which will then impact on the choice of the translation approach. Hence the necessity of categorizing the ST according to its text type; a useful classification that refers to the linguistic differences of texts and that will be ancillary to the choice of the translation method. In this case, the translator faces a text that is unique, that has no modello redazionale (Scarpa 2012:121) to refer to. As a ǡ ǲ ǳ ǡ choices. As a matter of fact, there are no parallel texts, neither in the source culture (hereafter SC) nor in the target culture (hereafter TC). This means that, as for the structure of the text, there are no preconceived rules, norms or conventions the author (or the translator) have to conform with. However, this does not imply that TPH does not belong to a certain text type. First of all, it is important to discuss the criteria with which texts are usually categorized. There is a first distinction in these criteria: the dimensione orizzontale and the dimensione verticale, discussed, among others, by Scarpa and Cortelazzo. The dimensione orizzontale takes into account the subject of the text, and therefore, according to this criterion, texts are all marked by terminology and are gathered together depending on the field: legal texts, economic texts, medical texts etc. This kind of classification is for sure the most immediate for specialized translators, but 16.

(24) in the last decades an attempt has been made to no longer rely only on the dimensione orizzontale, due to the fact that in many cases texts include more than one topic (e.g. study protocols, which can be defined as a medical text at a glance, contain paragraphs about data management that remind of legal contracts). Nowadays t ǲ ǳǡ that indicate the level of specialization of the message, taking into consideration more than one parameter: the participants, their ends and the context in which the communicative situation takes place. For the time being, we will use the dimensione orizzontale to give a first classification of The Progeria Handbook (TPB). During the reading phase, the translator has deduced that TPB is characterized by a specific type of language, with its specific lexis, that cross-‐refers to a precise area of interest: that of medicine and healthcare of children. The ST can therefore be classified as a medical text. This kind of classification refers mainly to the kind of lexis that is used in the text, but also to its syntactic and morphological features. This language represents a specific variety and is linked to a field of knowledge and professional activity whose access is allowed to only a small group of people; it is therefore a special language. Before analyzing the ST in its characteristics, it is necessary to give a preview on special languages, on the language of medicine and on English medical texts compared to Italians. . 1.3.1. Special languages First of all, what Cortelazzo calls lingue speciali, and Cortese calls linguaggi settoriali8 are created with a specific communicative goal and are provided with their own vocabulary and peculiar rules. They can be broadly defined as . una varietà funzionale di una lingua naturale, dipendente da un settore di conoscenze o da una sfera di attività specialistici, utilizzata, nella sua interezza, da un gruppo di parlanti più ristretto della totalità dei parlanti la lingua di cui quella speciale è una varietà, per soddisfare i bisogni comunicativi (in primo luogo quelli referenziali) di quel settore specialistico; la lingua speciale è costituita a livello lessicale da una serie di corrispondenze aggiuntive rispetto a quelle generali e comuni della lingua e a quello morfosintattico da un insieme di selezioni, . 8 Cortese, G. (edited by) Tradurre i linguaggi settoriali, cit. . 17.

(25) ricorrenti con regolarità, all'interno dell'inventario di forme disponibili nella lingua.9 . In more simple terms, a special language is the way with which specialists use language to refer to the reality of their professional field. According to Taylor, they consist of labeled terms bound together by appropriate words from the general vocabulary stock.10 In the last decades linguistic studies on special languages have flourished, but at the beginning they focused on terminology, as if a special language could only be defined by its lexis. It is certainly true that the latter provides distinctive elements that allow to distinguish a certain special language not only from other special languages but also from common language, but terminology is simply one of the variables and in the last decades studies have started to include morphology, syntax, textual and pragmatic organization of discourse. For this reason, Cortelazzo11 does not reduce his analysis of special languages to lexis and terminology and talks about three different levels of analysis, which will then be used and deepened in the analysis of the ST: x. Lexis . x. Morphosyntax . x. Text organization . Here is a brief description for each level, followed by a detailed study of the language of medicine. . 1.3.1.1. Lexis of special languages Because special languages have to be able to describe the reality of a specific field, whose terminological needs are always much wider and refined than that of common language, lexis of special languages is characterized by additional features. As a matter of fact, in a specific area of activity or knowledge there are concepts and things that do not belong to common experience, meaning that very often lexis of these languages is much vaster than that of common language. This ǲ ǳ al and common languages. . 9 Cortelazzo, M. Lingue speciali. La dimensione verticale, Padova, Unipress, 1994 . 10 Taylor C., Language to language. A practical and theoretical guide for Italian/English translators, . Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998 11 Cortelazzo, M. Lingue speciali. La dimensione verticale, cit. . 18.

(26) As for the characteristics of lexis, first of all languages for special purposes are characterized by monoreferentiality: one word form one referent in a given context, which serves the principle of maximum identification over minimum effort. In order to meet the lexical needs of these specific areas of interest, the word formation processes used are the same of common language: compounding, derivation, loans and calques from Latin, Greek or foreign languages (mainly English). It is also quite usual to find words that are semantic redeterminations of units belonging to general lexis or to other special languages; on the contrary, new formations are extremely rare. Finally, acronyms and abbreviations are also very common. . 1.3.1.2. Morphosyntax of special languages All languages for special purposes share the main syntactic features: x. Nominalization: noun phrases are preferred to verb phrases. This feature ǲǳ . x. Simplification of the syntactic structures: coordination (parataxis) is preferred to subordination (hypotaxis) . x. Use of a rather limited range of verbs . x. Use of impersonal and passive forms . . 1.3.1.3. Text organization of special languages Apart from the lexical level, the text composition and organization are very useful to distinguish a special language from another, or from common language, because of the use of binding and pre-‐established schemes. The whole text structure usually reflects the organization of the discourse, divided in blocks linked by explicit cohesive links that usually express causality. It is quite frequent to find glossaries, footnotes and examples; it is immediately noticeable also the use of pictures, tables and diagrams. . 1.3.2. The language of medicine . 19.

(27) Taylor12 considers medical texts as a typical example of linguaggio settoriale. Because they require certain stylistic and rhetorical operations, as well as an appropriate register and a standardized terminology, the language of medicine is considered a sub-‐discipline of ESP (English for Special Purposes), that is, English for Medical Purposes (EMP). ǲ

(28) ǳǡǲ ǳ ǤTaylor adds that it is a specialized language, which is capable of meeting any need of any medical context. Even though the language of science might be considered to be simple and descriptive because it has to report facts, the language of medicine always offers intriguing challenges. It can be considered as a subcategory of technical and scientific language, since it shares the majority of its features. To begin with, nobody could deny that this language is universal, thanks to the influence of ancient languages (mainly Greek) and, more recently, of English in the formation of terminology. Even though the level of universality is not maximum as occurs in the language of mathematics, it is sufficient to designate concepts very precisely, leaving no space for ambiguity: Example: urethra (EN) . uretra (IT) . uretra (ES) . This brings us to monoreferentiality, that is, words are monosemic and have a one-‐ to-‐one relationship with concept, so that, in theory, terminological units have only one referent and one term represents one concept and should be free of any ambiguity. However, Cortelazzo13 recognizes that monoreferentiality is not always the rule, since sometimes a term exists also in common language, even though it is considered to be a separate unit. Taylor14 gives some examples: abortion may appear in different subject fields, but it will have a different terminological role, and will therefore be translated correspondingly differently. The term enlargement, which in the general language has the basic meaning of ampliamento, translates as ingrossamento in medical terminology and as ingrandimento in the field of photography. In addition, in the case of texts of medical language, very frequently two terms can designate the same concept. This is due to another important and distinctive element that make medical language unique if compared . 12In: Cortese, G. (edited by) Tradurre i linguaggi settoriali, cit., p. 283 13 Cortelazzo, M. Lingue speciali. La dimensione verticale, cit., p. 12 . 14 Taylor C., Language to language. A practical and theoretical guide for Italian/English translators, . Cambridge, cit., p. 34 . 20.

(29) with other special languages: a significant use of synonyms. This high amount of cases in which two terms refer to the same concept are due to some factors: x. The use of eponyms: they are frequently used both in everyday situations and in professional settings. They can either stand alone (ex: newton, kelvin) or appear together with a noun (ex: Down Syndrome). In this second case, the expression is equivalent to trisomy 21. Sometimes eponyms used in common language stand beside their technical match, as in the case of Malattia di Newcastle, which is the equivalent of Pseudopeste aviare. Scarpa15 notices that the advantage of using eponyms is that they meet the needs of concision and precision required by scientific terminology, but ǲǳ non specialists and prove that the scientific community tends to be a little too ǲcloseǳ. The same can be said for acronyms, abbreviations and symbols. . x. Special languages have a doppio strato lessicale16, meaning that the majority of scientific words are flanked by common terms. The latter are used when a specialist interacts with a non-‐specialist, whereas technical terms have classical origins and are used among specialists. For example: eritrociti and globuli rossi refer both to the red blood cells, but the first term will be used between doctors or in specialized documents such as medical reports. When speaking with a patient, it is unlikely that a doctor says eritrociti because they are perfectly aware that the patient will not be able to understand. . x. Scarpa17 highlights another frequent case of synonymy, that is, when a term competes with a loan from a foreign language, which in general is more used because it is shorter; for example trial clinico has been lately preferred to sperimentazione clinica in the Italian language of medicine. . x. The so-‐called varianti temporali18, when two or more terms compete for a ǲ ǳ the evolution of technology. This is the case of TAC (tomografia assiale computerizzata) and TC (tomografia computerizzata). At the moment, these . 15 Scarpa F., La traduzione specializzata. Un approccio didattico professionale, cit. 16 Ross D., Profili morfologici della lingua medica: contrasti in ambito germanico-‐romanzo, . http://www.openstarts.units.it/dspace/bitstream/10077/2884/1/ritt8_09ross.pdf, consultato il 17 dicembre 2013 17 Scarpa F., La traduzione specializzata. Un approccio didattico professionale, cit., p. 59 18 Ibidem. . 21.