E U R O P E A N U N I V E R S I T Y I N S T I T U T E L A W D E P A R T M E N T E U I W O R K I N G P A P E R N o . 8 5 / 1 5 0 M e s o - C o r p o r a t i s m a n d L a b o u r C o n f l i c t R e s o l u t i o n by Ra l f R o g o w s k i S u b m i t t e d for p u b l i c a t i o n in: T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of C o m p a r a t i v e L a b o u r L a w a n d I n d u s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s . Vol. 1 (1985). B A D I A F I E S O L A N A , SAN D O M E N I C O (FIRENZE)
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r e p r o d u c e d in a n y f o r m w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n of t h e a u t h o r c R a l f R o g o w s k i P r i n t e d in I t a l y in J a n u a r y 1985 E u r o p e a n U n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t e B a d i a F i e s o l a n a , San D o m e n i c o (FI) I t a l y
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R a l f R o go ws ki , E u r o p e a n U n i v e r s i t y In st it ut e, F l o r e n c e
M e s o - C o r p o r a t i s m an d L a b o u r C o n f l i c t R e s o l u t i o n
The t h e o r y an d its a p p l i c a t i o n to the a n a l y s i s of l a bo ur j u d i c i a r i e s in France, G e r m a n y , G r e a t B r i t a i n an d U n i t e d S t a t e s . *
The a i m of the p a p e r w i ll be to d i s c u s s the c o n c e p t of m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m in o r d e r to a n a l y z e i n s t i t u t i o n s of d i s p u t e r e s o l u t i o n for e m p l o y m e n t c o n f l i c t s . C o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g and its r e l a t i o n t o e m p l o y m e n t c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n is, th er eb y, c o n c e p t u a l i z e d w i t h r e s p e c t to r e c e n t a p p r o a c h e s in p o l i t i c a l .s c i e n c e s t u d i e s w h i c h o v e r c o m e p l u r a l i s t n o t i o n s of s t e a d y c h a n g e in i n t e r m e d i a t i o n pr oc es se s; instead, c o o p e r a t i o n of the i n d u s t r i a l p a r t n e r s a n d the s t a t e are a n a l y z e d in te rm s of s t a b l e c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s . S t a r t i n g w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n of e l e m e n t s of a d e f i n i t i o n of m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m , e x t r a c t e d f r o m r e c e n t t h e o r i z i n g on c o r p o r a t i s m , the p a p e r t h en a p p l i e s th e c o n c e p t in a c o m p a r i s o n of p o l i c i e s of e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n an d r e s p e c t i v e legal i n s t i t u t i o n s , i.e. a r b i t r a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s , i n d u s t r i a l t r i b u n a l s an d l a b o u r co ur ts . * Q u e s t o l a v o r o si i n q u a d r a in une piu am p i a r i c e r c a c o m p a r a t i s t i c a in c o r s o p r e s s o l ' U n i v e r s i t à di M a c e r a t a e f i n a n z i a t a dal C.N.R. su ; " R e l a z i o n i I n d u s t r i a l i e D e m o c r a z i a I n d u s t r i a l e " .
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1) On M e s o - C o r p o r a t i s m • In a f o r m a l account, m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t r i p a r t i t e s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h in v o l v e r e g i o n a l or s e c t o r a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s of the state an d i n t e r e s t a s s o c i a t i o n s ; m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m ca n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m m a c r o - c o r p o r a t i s m on n a t i o n a l level an d f r o m m i c r o - c o r p o r a t i s m on local level. R e c e n t s t u d i e s on c o r p o r a t i s t r e l a t i o n s of state an d s o c i e t y s e e m to e x p r e s s an i n c r e a s e d c o n c e r n w i t h m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m .
On the one hand, t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s of the impa ct of c e n t r a l i z e d , but a l so d e c e n t r a l i s e d c o r p o r a t i s t p o l i c y - m a k i n g on d e m o c r a t i c s t r u c t u r e s tr y to o v e r c o m e the p r e v a l e n c e of m e re d e s c r i p t i o n s of formal n e t w o r k s b e t w e e n s o c i e t a l an d st at e i n s t i t u t i o n s . The d e m o c r a t i c s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y an d its r e l a t i o n w i t h the st at e are n o w at the c e n t e r of c o r p o r a t i s t t h e o r i z i n g e s p e c i a l l y in c h a l l e n g i n g p l u r a l i s m as the p a r a d i g m in p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h (cp. S c h m i t t e r 1983 an d 1984 an d Offe 1984). A l t h o u g h m e a n t to be d e s c r i p t i v e , the n e w t h e o r e t i c a l d e b a t e s of c o r p o r a t i s m ha v e a cl e a r n o r m a t i v e u n d e r c u r r e n t . If " a s s o c i a t i o n " is p u t f o r w a r d as a s o c i e t a l m e c h a n i s m of i n t e g r a t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h c o m m u n i t y , m a r k e t an d state (S t r e e c k / S c h m i t t e r 1984) it h a r d l y r e m a i n s n o n - n o r m a t i v e . In t h is co nt ex t, we still ca n r e c o n s t r u c t the id ea of c o r p o r a t i s m as an o r g a n i s a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e of s o c i e t y w h i c h e x p r e s s e s s o c i e t y ' s d e s i r e for G e m e i n s c h a f t i.e. the w i s h not o n l y to f o r m
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3 an a b s t r a c t s y s t e m of i n t e r a c t i n g m o n a d s b u t a l s o to f o r m an i n t e g r a t e d e n t i r e t y . Some p h i l o s o p h i c a l a c c o u n t s of c o r p o r a t i s m s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d it the o r g a n i c s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y (Fichte) w h e r e a s o t h e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n a l y s e s s t r e s s e d the t r a n s i t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r of c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s w h i l e c a l l i n g t h e m 'external state' w i t h i n s o c i e t y (on H e g e l ' s c o n c e p t of c o r p o r a t i s m as 'e xt er na l state' see R o g o w s k i 1983).
On the o t h e r hand, r e c e n t t h e o r i e s of the state are r e d e s i g n i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s of state an d s o c i et y. We find a n a l y s e s of g u i d a n c e c a p a c i t i e s of the m o d e r n st at e w i t h r e g a r d to n o n - h i e r a r c h i c a l m o d e l s of r e l a t i o n s h i p s of st at e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t b a r g a i n i n g sy st em s w h i c h are c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a s t r u c t u r e of s e l f - r e f e r e n c e an d w h i c h r e s i s t d i r e c t st at e i n t e r v e n t i o n (see W i l l k e 1983, p. 4 4 - 47 an d 128-144. W i l l k e ' s c o n c e p t is c l o s e l y l i n k e d to L u h m a n n ' s s o c i o l o g y ) . E m p i r i c a l st u d i e s of t h o s e i n d e p e n d e n t c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s are, s u b s e q u e n t l y , n a r r o w i n g th e i r fo cu s f r o m n a t i o n a l to s e ct or al , r e g i o n a l or local b a r g a i n i n g i n c l u d i n g n e t w o r k s of the w e l f a r e state an d a s s o c i a t i o n s on t h is level (see
for B r i t a i n C a w s o n 1982 ( " f r a g m e n t e d state") a n d H a r r i s o n 1984). To a c e r t a i n degree, the shift to m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s t st u d i e s seems a l s o a t h e o r e t i c a l r e s p o n s e to c o m p e l l i n g c h a n g e s in c u r r e n t po li t i c s . The a b o l i t i o n of " s oc ia l c o n t r a c t " p o l i c i e s on n a t i o n a l l e ve ls in m a j o r W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s in the 19 80 ie s c r e a t e s an i n c e n t i v e for the t h e o r y o f n e o - c o r p o r a t i s m to lo ok to lower s t r a t a of the p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s . It has a l r e a d y b e e n s u g g e s t e d to
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t a l k m o r e of a p o s t - c o r p o r a t i s t st at e ( L e w i s / W i l e s 1984 for the B r i t i s h c a s e ).
But c o r p o r a t i s m is c o n c e i v e d of as a to o n a r r o w c o n c e p t if it is c a l l e d a m o d e l w h i c h m a i n l y fits i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s at th ei r p e a k (see R o g e r B e n j a m i n 1980: 68-72). On the one hand, s t ab le c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s ca n be o b s e r v e d in p r e - i n d u s t r i a l i z e d so ci et ie s; in fact, the p o l i t i c o - e c o n o m i c s y s t e m of feud al s o c i e t i e s is m o s t o f t e n d e s c r i b e d in te rm s of c o r p o r a t i s t r e l a t i o n s of the state a n d g u il ds (on the us e of c o r p o r a t i s m in h i s t o r i c a l s t u d i e s see N o c k e n 1981). On the o t h e r hand, one m i g h t e n v i s a g e c o r p o r a t i s t s t r u c t u r e s in p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l so ci et ie s. If it is true, as B e n j a m i n v i e w s it, that p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s w i ll be s h a p e d b y local d e c e n t r a l i s e d g o v e r n m e n t s it m i g h t be p o s s i b l e to p r e d i c t o r g a n i s e d n e t w o r k s t r u c t u r e s at this level. B e c a u s e t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s o f t e n e v o l v e f r o m e x i s t i n g ne tw or ks , we c a n a l r e a d y a n a l y t i c a l l y s e a r c h t h e m in d e c e n t r a l i s e d c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s ; an d this c r e a t e s a f u r t h e r r e a s o n to fo cu s s t u d y of c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s on the m e s o - l e v e l of s o c i e t y w h e r e the f u t u r e p o w e r c e n t e r s m a y w e ll be located. A s s o c i a t i o n s as i n t e r m e d i a r i e s b e t w e e n s t a t e and s o c i e t y w e re a l w a y s -- e m p i r i c a l l y as w e ll as t h e o r e t i c a l l y -- c e n t r a l o b j e c t s of c o r p o r a t i s t st ud ie s. But r e s e a r c h c o n c e n t r a t e d u n t i l r e c e n t l y on the n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s of th es e a s s o c i a t i o n s an d th e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in n a t i o n a l p o l i c y - m a k i n g ( e s p e c i a l l y incomes po li cy ) and, s u r p r i s i n g l y , it still seems r a t h e r a n e w d i s c o v e r y
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5
t o t h e s e s t u d i e s th a t p r o c e s s e s of c o r p o r a t i s t i n t e r m e d i a t i o n oc c u r not o n l y on n a t i o n a l l e v e l s w h e r e s o - c a l l e d 'peak' a s s o c i a t i o n s i n f l u e n c e p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n . S t u d i e s on p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o c e s s e s r e v e a l e d c o m p l e x n e t w o r k s t r u c t u r e s b e t w e e n state a g e n c i e s and i n t e r e s t a s s o c i a t i o n s on a m i d d l e level of ' r e g i o n ' , i n d u s t r i a l sector, s i n g l e 'state' or 'local g o v e r n m e n t s ' (see o n l y B a r d a c h 1977; S c h a r p f et al. 1976) w h i c h c a n p r o v i d e i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e s for a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of s t ab le m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s .
R e s e a r c h on i n t r a - o r g a n i s a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s of a s s o c i a t i o n s , o n c e a c c u s e d of b e i n g the 'Achilles Heel' of n e o - c o r p o r a t i s t st u d i e s (T eubner 1979: 497), seems p r e s e n t l y a r i c h f i e l d (1). B e s i d e s s t u d i e s on m e m b e r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d s h o p floor in fl ue nc e, a t t e n t i o n w a s gi v e n to the se r v i c e a c t i v i t i e s of a s s o c i a t i o n s ( r e s e a r c h on legal a d v i c e p r o v i d e d by a s s o c i a t i o n s is d i s c u s s e d in G a w r o n / R o g o w s k i 1982). But r e s e a r c h in this f i e l d is still o c c u p i e d by a s s u m p t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i s a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s of l e a d e r s h i p a n d of r a nk and file w h i c h are u s e d to d i s t i n g u i s h the p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n of the a s s o c i a t i o n f r om its s e r v i c e f u n c t i o n t o w a r d s t h e i r m e m b e r s (for a g e n e r a l a c c o u n t see O l s o n 1971; see also the r e s e a r c h d e s i g n of the p r o j e c t on b u s i n e s s i n t e r e s t o r g a n i s a t i o n s in S t r e e c k / S c h m i t t e r 1981). But the m o r e w e k n o w about the t w o f u n c t i o n s the mo r e we ca n see that b o t h f u n c t i o n s are p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s an d that t h e y are, in fact, e x c h a n g a b l e a s s o c i a t i o n a l tasks.
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The p o l i t i c a l e x c h a n g e at the top level, on th e one side, ca n o n l y f u n c t i o n if l e a d e r s ca n o f f e r i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l of m e m b e r s in e x c h a n g e for p o l i t i c a l b e n e f i t s on the l e g i s l a t i v e level. On the o t h e r side, e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s e s w i t h the p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m do not o n l y o c c u r at the top level. The s e r v i c i n g of m e m b e r s is not an a p o l i t i c a l i n t r a - a s s o c i a t i o n a l affair. M i d d l e - l e v e l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of a s s o c i a t i o n s p a r t i c i p a t e in a d m i n i s t e r i n g the w e l f a r e state, u s u a l l y as s o - c a l l e d lay m e m b e r s in a d m i n i s t r a t i v e or j u d i c i a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e d u r e s . A c o n s t a n t e x c h a n g e w i t h w e l f a r e a g e n c i e s al so o c c u r s w h en o f f i c i a l s of the a s s o c i a t i o n act as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of th e i r m e m b e r s in a p p l y i n g for w e l f a r e b e n e f i t s an d e n f o r c i n g s t a t u t o r y rights; th e s e e x c h a n g e s m i g h t r e s u l t in n e t w o r k r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n a s s o c i a t i o n s an d state ag en c i e s . S o m e t i m e s a s s o c i a t i o n s ca n e v e n take o v er i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of w e l f a r e p o l i c i e s ; t h r o u g h f o rm al d e l e g a t i o n of d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p o w e r to a u t o n o m o u s c o n f i g u r a t i o n s of i n t e r e s t groups, the st at e m i g h t e v en r e t r e a t f r o m c o n t r o l in s p e c i f i c s o c i a l fields.
E x e r c i s e of s e r v i c e s for members, th er ef or e, o f t e n has to be c a l l e d a p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y of a s s o c i a t i o n s . The p o l i t i c a l e x c h a n g e at the m i d d l e level of p o l i t i c s c r e a t e s c o n t i n u o u s p r o f e s s i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s an d a s s o c i a t i o n s which, ideally, are d e s i g n e d to b a l a n c e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t s an d m e m b e r i n t e r e s t s of a s s o c i a t i o n s . But it is an e m p i r i c a l q u e s t i o n wether, in fact, the inner d y n a m i c s of m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s a l l o w the b a l a n c e b e t w e e n p u b l i c and a s s o c i a t i o n a l
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7
i n t e r e s t s or w e t h e r t h e y serve a n e w i n t e r e s t of this soci al c o n f i g u r a t i o n and its p r o f e s s i o n a l an d b u r e a u c r a t i c m e m b e r s .
We c a n r e l a t e our d e f i n i t i o n of m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m to m o re g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n s ; vo n B e y m e 's r e c e n t d e f i n i t i o n of c o r p o r a t i s m s u m m a r i z e s the g e n e r a l debate:
"The t r i p a r t i t e r e l a t i o n of the state an d tw o c o n f l i c t o r y m i g h t y i n t e r e s t g r o u p s s u g g e s t s to talk a b o u t c o r p o r a t i s m o n l y w h e n the state is not o n l y n e g o t i a t i n g w i t h one a s s o c i a t i o n w h i c h ho ld s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l m o n o p o l y ... C o r p o r a t T s m -- a u t h o r i t a r i a n as w e ll as li b e r a l -- m e a n s the a t t e m p t to c o n c i l i a t e c o n f l i c t o r y i n t e r e s t s w i t h the s u p p o r t of the s t a t e .11 (v . Be y m e 1984:224. T r a n s l a t i o n by R . R . )
The t r i p a r t i t e ch a r a c t e r , the i n t e r m e d i a t i o n of state an d g r o u p i n t e r e s t s an d the c o n c i l i a t o r y f u n c t i o n of the a r r a n g e m e n t s are the t h r e e a s p e c t s of c o r p o r a t i s m w h i c h v . B e y m e e m p h a s i s e s . We ca n a d d an e l e m e n t w h i c h S c h m i t t e r ' s w e l l k n o w n d e f i n i t i o n stresses: the i n t r a - o r g a n i s a t i o n a l a s p e c t s of c o n t r o l in e x c h a n g e for a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l m o n o p o l y of the a s s o c i a t i o n (S ch mi tt er 1979: 13). O r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of n e o - c o r p o r a t i s t c o o p e r a t i o n for a s s o c i a t i o n s are f u n c t i o n a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n , p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n , f o r m a l i z a t i o n an d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n ( S tr ee ck 1982). But for our d i s c u s s i o n of a d e f i n i t i o n of m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m we have to go b e y o n d i n t r a - o r g a n i s a t i o n a l a n a l y s e s an d s w i t c h o u r a t t e n t i o n to the i n c r e a s e d p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s of a s s o c i a t i o n s on the m i d d l e level of p o li ti cs . We ca n f o l l o w s t u d i e s on w e l f a r e c o r p o r a t i s m w h i c h a n a l y z e c o r p o r a t i s t r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n the c o n t e x t of soci al p o l i c y an d its i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ; an d it is the p r o c e s s of
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i n c o r p o r a t i o n w h i c h b e c o m e s i m p o r t a n t in th is r e s p e c t (see H a r r i s o n 1984). Our t h e s i s is th e r e f o r e : It is c o n s t i t u t i v e for m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s that p r o f e s s i o n a l s of a s s o c i a t i o n s take an a c t i v e p a rt in the f u n c t i o n i n g of w e l f a r e a g e n c i e s in o r d e r to m a i n t a i n s e r v i c e f u n c t i o n s for m e m b e r s ; t h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a t i o n in w e l f a r e c o r p o r a t i s m a s s o c i a t i o n s ga in i n f l u e n c e in o t h e r s o c i a l f i el ds w h e r e d i r e c t a s s o c i a t i o n a l c o n t r o l is lacking. In e x ch an ge , the w e l f a r e st at e a b s o r b s p o l i t i c a l c r i t i c i s m on its limits t h r o u g h i n t e g r a t i o n of p r o f e s s i o n a l c r i t i c s an d t h e r e b y c o n c i l i a t e s a n t a g o n i s t i c in te re st s. In m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s , a s s o c i a t i o n s act p o l i t i c a l l y o n l y in the form al sense of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ; l o o k i n g at a c tu al d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s w i t h p a r t i c i p a t i o n of a s s o c i a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , a d e p o l i t i c i s a t i o n of i s s u e s can be o b s e r v e d as the m a i n e f f e c t of the i n c o r p o r a t i o n of i n t e r e s t gr oups.
In the following, we w i ll a p p l y the c o n c e p t of m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m in o r d e r to a n a l y z e in t w o w a ys e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n . First, there w i ll be a d i s c u s s i o n of p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s s u r r o u n d i n g the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of labo ur c o n f l i c t i n s t i t u t i o n s . Second, we w i ll c o m p a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s of labo ur c o n l i c t i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t to the d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s of m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m .
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2. M e s o - C o r p o r a t i s m a n d the E s t a b l i s h m e n t of L a b o u r C o n f l i c t I n s t i t u t i o n s
S i m i l a r to the d i s t i n c t i o n of macro-, me s o - an d m i c r o - c o r p o r a t i s m r e s e a r c h on I n d u s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n national, r e g i o n a l / s e c t o r a l and local c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g (2). The i m p o r t a n c e of e a ch level v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g to c o u n t r y . In Ge rmany, for ex am pl e, the i n d u s t r y - w i d e b a r g a i n i n g (sectoral or r e g i o n a l level) is m o s t i m p o r t a n t for the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of w a g e s or ho ur s of w o r k (the r e c e n t b a t t l e o v er the 35 h o u r w e e k wa s c a r r i e d out at this le ve l) . By co nt r a s t , in the U n i t e d S t at es m o s t c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g is done at c o m p a n y level b e t w e e n local u n i o n s and m a n a g e m e n t (with some i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n s in steel i n d u s t r y and a u t o m o b i l e p r o d u c t i o n ) .
It seems g e n e r a l l y t r ue th at c e n t r a l i z e d b a rg ai ni ng , on the on e hand, a l l o w s to in c l u d e a w i d e v a r i e t y of p o l i t i c a l l y a b s t r a c t i s su es but, on the o t h e r hand, it o f t e n e x p r e s s e s a c o m p r o m i s e w i t h a r a t h e r small c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r . O n ly b a s e l i n e s are fi x e d t h r o u g h c e n t r a l b a r g a i n i n g an d side a g r e e m e n t s on e n t e r p r i s e level are n e c e s s a r y to r e g u l a t e d e t a i l s a n d s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s (on the r e l a t i o n of i n d u s t r y a g r e e m e n t s a n d e n t e r p r i s e a g r e e m e n t s see S c h m i d t / N e a l 1984: 12-111, p. 42/3). E m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n , i.e. e s p e c i a l l y p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t d i s m i s s a l s , does not a u t o m a t i c a l l y b e c o m e a su b j e c t of c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g . In fact, it is o f t e n n e g l e c t e d in c o l l e c t i v e
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b a r g a i n i n g b e c a u s e t h e r e are no u n i o n s or b e c a u s e the b a r g a i n i n g p a r t n e r s n e g o t i a t e e x c l u s i v e l y ab ou t c o l l e c t i v e m a t t er s; e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n , then, has to b e e s t a b l i s h e d by the state t h r o u g h l a b o u r law, s o m e t i m e s on r e q u e s t of the un ions. But c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g c r e a t e s the b a c k g r o u n d a g a i n s t w h i c h e m p l o y m e n t p o l i c i e s are c a r r i e d out. This is not o n l y tr ue for n a t i o n a l c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g . A l s o on the m i c r o - l e v e l of c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g , w h e r e n e g o t i a t i o n s of m a n a g e m e n t and shop s t e w a r d s are i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d in g r i e v a n c e p r o c e d u r e s , these p r o c e d u r e s se r v e as f i lt er i n s t i t u t i o n s for l a b o u r c o u r t s in t h o s e c o u n t r i e s w h i c h h a ve e s t a b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e j u d i c i a r i e s for labour c o n f l i c t s . Th e s e o f f i c i a l l a b o u r c o n f l i c t i n s t i t u t i o n s , b e s i d e s a r b i t r a t i o n at c o m p a n y level, f u n c t i o n on a m e s o - l e v e l , i.e. its j u r i s d i c t i o n n o r m a l l y c o v e r s a c e r t a i n re gion. T h e y are c r e a t e d to i m p l e m e n t e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n law, in a l m o s t all c a s e s w i t h i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n of i n t e r e s t groups. In the f o l l o w i n g , we shall i l l u s t r a t e the o p e r a t i o n of m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h r e g a r d to p o l i c i e s an d i n s t i t u t i o n s of d a i l y p r a c t i c e of e m p l o y m e n t c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n in France, W e st Ge rm an y, G r e a t B r i t a i n an d the U n i t e d States.
The o l d e s t e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n p o l i c y can be f o u n d in France. A l r e a d y u n d e r the r e i g n of N a p o l e o n B o n a p a r t e the first C o n s e i l de P r u d 1h o m m e s (1806) wa s e s t a b l i s h e d on r e q u e s t of the C h a m b r e de c o m m e r c e in Ly on . Its m e m b e r s at th a t t i m e w e r e e x c l u s i v e l y
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11
e m p l o y e r s . It t o ok u n t i l 1848 to c r e a t e a b i p a r t i t e b e n c h w i t h an e q u a l n u m b e r of e m p l o y e r a n d e m p l o y e e m e m b e r s . The b i p a r t i t e s t r u c t u r e r e m a i n s u n t i l t o d a y a n d is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the F r e n c h labo ur c o ur ts . They are p u b l i c c o u r t s w i t h an e x c l u s i v e m e m b e r s h i p of f o u r lay j u dg es f r o m e a ch side w h o are p r e s e n t l y e l e c t e d for five y e a r s (A r e d u c t i o n to t h r e e lay j u dg es f r o m e a c h side "est p r e v u e " (J a v i l l i e r 1982: 296)). In 1981, the S o c i a l i s t g o v e r n m e n t c r e a t e d an a d v i s o r y body, the C o n s e i l s u p e r i e u r de la p r u d ' h o m i e , w h i c h is l o c a t e d at n a t i o n a l le ve l an d w h i c h has a t r i p a r t i t e s t r u c t u r e i n c l u d i n g m e m b e r s f r o m un io ns , e m p l o y e r a s s o c i a t i o n s and the D e p a r t m e n t of La bo r (see J a v i l l i e r 1982: 293). Th e c o v e r a g e of w o r k e r s by t h e s e c o u r t s w a s g r a d u a l l y e x t e n d e d . N o w a d a y s o n l y p u b l i c w o r k e r s are e x c l u d e d . E a c h F r e n c h l a b o u r c o u r t is st il l c r e a t e d on s p e c i a l r e q u e s t b y a s e p a r a t e g o v e r n m e n t d e c r e e an d
"has its seat in a t o wn of some size a n d i m po rt an ce , an d its j u r i s d i c t i o n c o v e r s a s p e c i f i e d a r ea a r o u n d t h at t o w n . " (Blanc- J o u v a i n 1971: 17) Un ti l r e ce nt ly , the F r e n c h l a bo ur c o u r t s y s t e m w o r k e d u n d e r the p r i n c i p l e of s p e c i f i c t e r r i t o r i a l i t y w h i c h m e a n t t h at o n l y 40 per ce n t ou t of the p o p u l a t i o n l i v e d w i t h i n ar e a s c o v e r e d b y c o n s e i l s (Napier 1979: 273). In 1979, th e p r i n c i p l e of g e n e r a l t e r r i t o r i a l i t y wa s e n a c t e d w h i c h is n o w s u p p o s e d to g u a r a n t e e t h a t all F r e n c h w o r k e r s , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r p l a c e of work, h a v e a c ce ss to a c o n s e i l . J u r i s d i c t i o n is still o n l y p r o v i d e d for i n d i v i d u a l
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e m p l o y m e n t c o n f l i c t s a n d not for c o l l e c t i v e d i s p u t e s w h i c h in volve tr ad e un io ns . Th er e e x i s t p r e s e n t l y about 270 c o n s e i l s (Moritz 1984: 74).
The F r e n c h u n i o n s made se v e r a l p r o p o s a l s to e x t e n d j u r i s d i c t i o n to c o l l e c t i v e is sues. A f t e r the v i c t o r y of the S o c i a l i s t p a r t y in 1981 the u n i o n s felt s t r o n g e n o u g h to ask for d i r e c t a p p o i n t m e n t s of the j u d g e s b u t so far j u r i s d i c t i o n on c o l l e c t i v e i n t e r e s t s as w e ll as d i r e c t a p p o i n t m e n t s have not b e en gr an te d. A l r e a d y u n d e r th e p r e s e n t s y s t e m 70 pe r c e n t of the w o r k e r c o n s e i l l e r s are a f f i l i a t e d w i t h the u n i o n s (Napier 1979: 275).
Th o s e c r i t i c a l of the c o n s e i l s call t h e m an i n s t i t u t i o n of c l a s s c o l l a b o r a t i o n w h i c h has its f u n c t i o n in " b a n a l i s a t i o n des p r a t i q u e s c o n f l i c t u e l l e s " (Cam 1981: 209). The a l l e g a t i o n is that s m a l l e r a n d m e d i u m s i z e d e m p l o y e r still i d e o l o g i c a l l y d o m i n a t e the c o u r t a n d the benc h; but c o n f l i c t s of the i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r c a n n o t be a d e q u a t e l y s o l v e d in a c o u r t w h i c h is d o m i n a t e d by v a l u e s of the c o m m e r c i a l se ct or . The ol d F r e n c h e m p l o y e r ideal of a p e r s o n a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e "pat ro n" do es not a n s w e r the n e e d s of f u n c t i o n a l m a n a g e m e n t or c o m p a n y m a n a g e m e n t by c o - d e t e r m i n a t i o n
(Cam 1981, c h a p i t r e 11).
In general, the F r e n c h L a b o u r c o u r t s ca n be c a l l e d a p r o d u c t of lo ca l c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s . The c o n s e i l s are o r g a n i s a t i o n s of t h e town; its l o c a l l y e l e c t e d "wise me n" are c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o n c i l i a t i o n r a t h e r th an c l a s s s t ru gg le . It t o o k un t i l r e c e n t
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13 r e f o r m s to a b o l i s h e x c l u s i v e local f i n a n c i n g a n d to h a v e the n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t take o v e r a sh ar e of the f i n a n c i a l bu r d e n . F r e n c h l a b o u r c o u r t s h a d some, b u t o n l y a l i m i t e d i m p a c t on the G e r m a n s i t u a t i o n in the 19th c e nt ur y; a g e n e r a l s y s t e m of l a b o u r c o u r t s d e v e l o p e d o n l y at th e e n d of a c e n t u r y w h e n B i s m a r c k ' s a u t h o r i t a r i a n p o l i c y a g a i n s t the S o c i a l d e m o c r a t i c P a r t y w a s a c c o m p a n i e d by the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of b a s i c w e l f a r e m e a s u r e s . L a b o u r c o u r t s of the p r e s e n t d a y w e r e i n t r o d u c e d in 1926. The l a b o u r c o u r t s r e p l a c e d e a r l i e r " I n d u s t r i a l Co u r t s " ( G e w e r b e g e r i c h t e , e s t a b l i s h e d 1890) an d " C o m m e r c i a l C o u r t s " (K a u f m a n n s g e r i c h t e , e s t a b l i s h e d 1904) w h i c h h a d l i m i t e d j u r i s d i c t i o n a n d d i d no t c o v e r a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k e r s . Th e s e t r a d e c o u r t s h a d a t r i p a r t i t e b e n c h wi th , like th e F r e n c h co nseil, e l e c t e d lay m e m b e r s f r o m the e m p l o y e r s ' side an d the e m p l o y e e s ' s i de an d one p r o f e s s i o n a l judge. F r o m the b e g i n n i n g of the W e i m a r Re pu bl ic , s o c i a l i s t l a w y e r s — a m o n g t h e m H u g o S i n z h e i m e r an d O t t o K a h n - F r e u n d -- w e r e s t r i v i n g for a legal f r a m e w o r k of labo ur r e l a t i o n s g e n e r a l l y kn o w n as the " e c o n o m i c c o n s t i t u t i o n " (W i r t s c h a f t s v e r f a s s u n g ) (3). L a b o u r law, a m o n g o t h e r laws, wa s c o n c e r n e d w i t h an i n f r a s t r u c t u r e of le g a l i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h r e a c h e d f r o m th e s h o p f l o o r u p to the n a t i o n a l level t h e r e b y p a r a l l e l i n g th e h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e of the p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n m a k i n g p r o c e s s (see R a m m 1971: 91). On e of t h e s e n e w i n s t i t u t i o n s of the 1 9 2 0 i e s wa s the L a b o u r C o u r t w h i c h w a s e s t a b l i s h e d in 1926 a f t e r i n t e n s i v e p o l i t i c a l d e b a t e s (Michel 1982). The l a b o u r c o u r t s
'
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*
I
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of 1926 k e p t a t r i p a r t i t e benc h; bu t its lay m e m b e r s , f r o m then on, w e r e no t e l e c t e d bu t n o m i n a t e d f r o m lists p r o v i d e d by the r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s of the n a t i o n a l u n i o n and e m p l o y e r f e d e r a t i o n . L a b o u r C o u r t s w e r e e m p o w e r e d to deal w i t h all p r o b l e m s w h i c h c o u l d a r i s e ou t of the e m p l o y m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p ; a c c e s s was g u a r a n t e e d to all t y p e s of w o r k e r s e x c e p t for ci v i l se rv an ts . A n d l a b o u r c o u r t s h a d j u r i s d i c t i o n in c o l l e c t i v e labour l a w issu es i.e p a r t i c i p a t i o n r i g h t s of w o r k s c o u n c i l s on the shop fl oo r level. U n i o n s an d w o r k s c o u n c i l s c o u l d f r o m n o w on e n f o r c e th e i r s t a t u t o r y r i g h t s t h r o u g h t h e s e n e w l a b o u r co ur ts .
In th e T h i r d R e i c h the c o u r t s j u r i s d i c t i o n on c o l l e c t i v e l a bo ur l a w i s su es w a s i m m e d i a t e l y a b o l i s h e d bu t i n d i v i d u a l labo ur law c a s e s we r e left to the labo ur c o u r t s so l o ng as t h e y d i d not fall u n d e r the j u r i s d i c t i o n of n e w l y e s t a b l i s h e d "C ourts of Soci al Ho n o u r " ( s o z ia le E h r e n g e r i c h t e ) w h i c h c o n t r o l l e d m a i n l y e m p l o y e r c o n d u c t (see S p o h n 1982: 204/5); the "G e r m a n L a b o u r Front"
( D e u t s c h e A r b e i t s f r o n t ) r e p l a c e d t r a d e u n i o n s an d e m p l o y e r a s s o c i a t i o n s (on the e a r l y h i s t o r y of the labour c o u r t s in the W e i m a r R e p u b l i c an d d u r i n g the Nazi p e r i o d see W u n d e r l i c h 1946). L a b o u r c o u r t s w e r e a m o n g the f i r s t i n s t i t u t i o n s a f t e r the w a r to r e g a i n th e i r p r e - f a s c i s t j u r i s d i c t i o n s . T h ey s t e a d i l y e n l a r g e d j u r i s d i c t i o n d u r i n g the 1950ies; in p a r t i c u l a r the F e d e r a l L a b o u r C o u r t i n c r e a s e d its legal c o m p e t e n c e s by o w n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g l e a d i n g to th e a l l e g a t i o n that G e r m a n labo ur law, e s p e c i a l l y in c o l l e c t i v e ma tt er s, wa s t u r n i n g to c a se l a w r a t h e r th an r e s t i n g on 14
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"s ou nd " s t a t u t o r y la w (see o n l y the c r i t i c a l a p p r a i s a l of B l an ke et al. 1975, Vol. II, pp. 248/9. D a e u b l e r 1982, Vol. I, p. 2 7 c a l l s t h i s t e n d e n c y " j ud ic ia l d o m i n a t i o n " ( R i c h t e r h e r r s c h a f t )). L a b o u r c o u r t s g a i n e d f u r t h e r j u r i s d i c t i o n on c o l l e c t i v e i s s u e s by a m e n d m e n t s to m a j o r c o - d e t e r m i n a t i o n laws in the 1 9 70 ie s (B e t r i e b s v e r f a s s u n g s g e s e t z 1972; M i t b e s t i m m u n g s g e s e t z 1976). Si nc e th e e n a c t m e n t of th e " D i s m i s s a l P r o t e c t i o n Act" (K u e n d i g u n g s s c h u t z g e s e t z ) of 1951, w h i c h c o n t i n u e d the t r a d i t i o n of a 1926 ac t p r o t e c t i n g w h i t e c o l l a r w o r k e r s , t h e r e o c c u r r e d o n ly p i e c e m e a l r e f o r m s in the i n d i v i d u a l l a b o u r l a w area. The " L a b o u r L a w C o n s o l i d a t i o n Act" (A r b e i t s r e c h t s b e r e i n i g u n g s g e s e t z ) of 1969, a m o n g s t o t h e r statutes, led to the c l e a r i n g u p an d s l i g h t e x t e n s i o n of c o v e r a g e an d of n o t i c e p e r i o d s in G e r m a n e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n law.
If we c o m p a r e the B r i t i s h an d the G e r m a n d e v e l o p m e n t we see t h a t B r i t a i n se em s to f o l l o w the c o n t i n e n t a l c o u r s e w i t h a t i me ga p of a l m o s t 50 years. The first I n d u s t r i a l T r i b u n a l s w i t h o n l y l i m i t e d j u r i s d i c t i o n s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d b y th e I n d u s t r i a l T r a i n i n g Act 1964. But p r e s s u r e for f u r t h e r r e g u l a t i o n of i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s r e m a i n e d l e a d i n g to the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the f a mo us i n v e s t i g a t o r y Ro ya l C o m m i s s i o n , c h a i r e d by L o r d Dono va n. Its Report, r e l e a s e d in 1968, c o n t a i n s a c a r e f u l d e s c r i p t i o n of the st at e of i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s in the m i d d l e of the 1960ies. Its c o n c l u s i o n b e c a m e f a m o u s :
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" B r i t a i n ha s tw o s y s t e m s of i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s . Cn e is the f o rm al s y s t e m e m b o d i e d in the o f f i c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . The o t h e r is t h e i n f o r m a l s y s t e m c r e a t e d by the a c t u a l b e h a v i o u r of tr ad e u n i o n s an d em p l o y e r s ' a s s o c i a t i o n s , of ma na g e r s , s h op s t e w a r d s an d w o r k e r s ."(D o n o v a n R e p o r t 1968, par. 1007, p.261)
C o n s i d e r i n g the e f f e c t i v e w o r k i n g of the i n f o r m a l system, the D o n o v a n R e p o r t a r g u e d that l e g i s l a t i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n w o u l d c a u s e m o r e d i s r u p t i o n t h an orde r. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it c a l l e d for c h a n g e s w i t h r e g a r d to i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r s w i t h no e f f e c t i v e r e g u l a t i o n by c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g . A n d in " C h a p t e r X", the R e p o r t p r o p o s e d n e w " L a b o u r T r i b u n a l s " w h i c h w o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e the v a r i o u s j u r i s d i c t i o n s on i n d i v i d u a l e m p l o y m e n t m a t t e r s w i t h i n one legal b o d y
"to m a k e a v a i l a b l e to all e m p l o y e r s an d e m p l o y e e s , for all d i s p u t e s a r i s i n g f r o m th ei r c o n t r a c t s of e m p l o y m e n t , a p r o c e d u r e w h i c h is e a s i l y a c ce ss ib le , informal, s p e e d y an d i n e x p e n s i v e . " ( D o n o v a n R e p o r t 1968, par. 572, p. 156) Th is L a b o u r T r i b u n a l w o u l d be o b l i g e d to se e k s e t t l e m e n t b e f o r e a d j u d i c a t i o n ; a n d as m u c h as p o s s i b l e c a s e s w o u l d be d e f e r r e d to a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g v o l u n t a r y p r o c e d u r e s . C o l l e c t i v e d i s p u t e s w o u l d be k e p t o u t s i d e th e T r i b u n a l s a n d w o u l d be left to the c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g system.
The p o l i t i c a l r e f o r m s af t e r D o n o v a n w e r e far less c a u t i o u s t h an th e R e p o r t s u g g e s t e d . M a s s i v e st a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n s w e r e first p r o p o s e d by the L a b o u r G o v e r n m e n t ' s Wh i t e P a p e r "In Pl ac e of S t r i f e " (1969) a n d th en -- w i t h a d i f f e r e n t im p e t u s a g a i n s t the u n i o n s -- c a r r i e d ou t b y the f o l l o w i n g C o n s e r v a t i v e G o v e r n m e n t in
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I
its I n d u s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s Ac t (IRA) of 1971. The I R A e s t a b l i s h e d a t r i p a r t i t e " N a t i o n a l I n d u s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s C o ur t" n e g l e c t i n g the w a r n i n g s of the D o n o v a n R e p o r t not to o v e r b u r d e n l a b o u r c o u r t s w i t h c o l l e c t i v e l a bo ur l a w issues. R e p r e s s i v e a c t i o n s of the c o u r t a g a i n s t s t r i k e r s c l e a r l y i n c r e a s e d the a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g h o s t i l i t y of the B r i t i s h labo ur m o v e m e n t a g a i n s t c o u r t s an d it c o n t r i b u t e d t o the fi n a l d e f e a t of the I R A in 1974 (See C r o u c h 1982: 75-79; F a r m e r 1974: 74-82; an d on the a t t i t u d e s of g e n e r a l c o u r t s t o w a r d s i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s see W e d d e r b u r n 1978 a n d G r i f f i t h 1981, ch. 3). The u n i o n s r e f u s e d to p a r t i c i p a t e in i m p l e m e n t i n g the I R A and, s u b s e q u e n t l y , a s k e d t h e i r lay j u d g e s to w i t h d r a w f r o m the tr i b u n a l s . The e x p e r i e n c e w i t h the I R A c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d the s o c i a l l i m i t s of la w as a r e g u l a t o r y i n s t r u m e n t in i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s
(See W e e k e s et al. 1975).
In a g e n e r a l a n a l y s i s of the d e v e l o p m e n t of B r i t i s h l a bo ur law, H . C o l l i n s (1982: 81-83) d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h r e e s t a g e s w h i c h he also c a l l s t h r e e "types" of l a bo ur law. The fi rs t p h a s e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the c r e a t i o n of a "flo or of r i g h t s " for w o r k e r s a g a i n s t e x p l o i t a t i o n . F a c t o r y A c ts a n d T r u c k A c ts o c c u r in t h is p h a s e . The s e c o n d p h a s e is c a l l e d p l u r a l i s t l a bo ur law w h i c h is c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e g u l a t i o n s of t r a d e u n i o n s a n d c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g in or d e r to p r o t e c t a u t o n o m o u s r e g u l a t i o n of the w o r k p l a c e b y the i n d u s t r i a l p a r t n e r s . Th is t y pe of l a bo ur l a w wa s f a v o u r e d in the D o n o v a n Re p o r t . In a t h i r d phas e, C o l l i n s th en o b s e r v e s the rise of c o r p o r a t i s t l a b o u r law. Th is aims at
17
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" j u r i d i c a l i s a t i o n " of l a b o u r r e l a t i o n s a n d o r d e r in i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s t h r o u g h state i n t e r v e n t i o n . U n f a i r d i s m i s s a l l e g i s l a t i o n is a p r i m e e x a m p l e of c o r p o r a t i s t l a bo ur la w for C o l l i n s b e c a u s e "it is d e s i g n e d to su b j e c t a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n of the r e a l m of m a n a g e r i a l d i s c r e t i o n to j u d i c i a l c o n t r o l " (C ollins 1982: 83). But c o r p o r a t i s t l a b o u r l a w c r e a t e s p r o b l e m s for c o u r t s a n d tr i b u n a l s ; t h e y are not e q u i p p e d to i n t e r v e n e in i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s and t h e r e f o r e are m o re l i k e l y to abstain, f o l l o w e s t a b l i s h e d m a n a g e r i a l n o r m s in d e f i n i n g 'fair' d i s m i s s a l s or r e t r e a t to p r o c e d u r a l i s m .
C o l l i n s v i e w of the rise of c o r p o r a t i s t l a bo ur l a w as a m e a n s of l e g a l i z i n g l a bo ur r e l a t i o n s seems to be s u p p o r t e d by the l e g i s l a t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t since the m i d d l e of the Se ve nt ie s. The n e w e r a of " s o c i a l c o n t r a c t " p o l i c i e s of th e L a b o u r G o v e r n m e n t c o n t i n u e d s t a t u t o r y e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n f r o m 1974 on. The " T ra de U n i o n a n d I n d u s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s Ac t" of 1974, w h i c h r e p e a l e d the 1971 IRA, k e p t p r o v i s i o n s o n u n f a i r d i s m i s s a l p r o t e c t i o n a l m o s t u n c h a n g e d . Th e E m p l o y m e n t P r o t e c t i o n A c t of 1975, w h i c h i n t r o d u c e d an o b l i g a t o r y c o n c i l i a t i o n p r o c e d u r e c a r r i e d ou t b y the s e p a r a t e g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c y 'Advisory, c o n c i l i a t i o n a n d A r b i t r a t i o n Se r v i c e (ACAS), a n d th e E m p l o y m e n t P r o t e c t i o n ( C on so li da ti on) Act of 1978 w h i c h n o w c o m b i n e s all u n f a i r d i s m i s s a l p r o v i s i o n s s t a b i l i z e d the legal f o u n d a t i o n of the d e v e l o p m e n t of the I n d u s t r i a l T r i b u n a l Sy s t e m . A n d the C o n s e r v a t i v e E m p l o y m e n t A c ts of 1980 an d 1982 and the Tr ad e U n i o n Act of 1984 di d not s e r i o u s l y c h a l l e n g e this
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19
d e v e l o p m e n t (see D i c k e n s et al. 1984); f e w r e s t r i c t i o n s w e r e put on th e I n d u s t r i a l T r i b u n a l ' s , a l t h o u g h the m a i n e m p h a s i s of c o n s e r v a t i v e r e f o r m s lies a g a i n w i t h s y m b o l i c p o l i t i c s in c o l l e c t i v e l a bo ur r e l a t i o n s a n d less w i t h e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n . If w e tu rn to the U n i t e d S t at es the p i c t u r e c h a n g e s . T h e r e h a ve b e e n some d i s c u s s i o n a m o n g A m e r i c a n l a b o u r l a w y e r s ab ou t p r a c t i c e s of "hire a n d fire" at "free w i l l " of the e m p l o y e r (see e.g. S u m m e r s 1976). But in general, the p r i n c i p l e of d i s m i s s i n g a w o r k e r "for g o o d r e a s o n s , b a d re as on s, or no r e a s o n at all" is still v a li d. But l i m i t a t i o n s on m a n a g e r i a l p r e r o g a t i v e s ca n be e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g a g r e e m e n t s ; a l t h o u g h p r e s e n t l y o n l y 20 pe r c e n t ou t of the A m e r i c a n w o r k fo rc e is u n i o n i z e d the p r i n c i p l e of " e x c l u s i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " of all m e m b e r s of the b a r g a i n i n g unit, r e g a r d l e s s of b e i n g u n i o n i z e d or not, ha s the e f f e c t t h a t a b o u t 25 to 30 p e r c e nt of th e A m e r i c a n w o r k e r s are c o v e r e d b y c o l l e c t i v e a g r e e m e n t s . 80 pe r c e n t of t h e s e a g r e e m e n t s p r o v i d e t h at e m p l o y e r m a y d i s m i s s e m p l o y e e s o n l y for a "just ca us e" ; d i s p u t e s f a l l i n g u n d e r t h i s or an y o t h e r c l a u s e of th e a g r e e m e n t m i g h t b e h a n d l e d in f o r m a l g r i e v a n c e p r o c e d u r e s w h i c h are e s t a b l i s h e d in 95 per c e n t of all a g r e e m e n t s (see St. A n t o i n e 1984: 266/7. A l s o R o g o w s k i 1983: 20 1- 2 0 7 ) . Fi n a l an d b i n d i n g d e c i s i o n s are r e a c h e d in t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s t h r o u g h a r b i t r a t i o n . The s t a t e an d its j u d i c i a r y a c k n o w l e d g e the b i n d i n g c h a r a c t e r of a r b i t r a t i o n awards; the S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i d e d a g a i n s t j u d i c i a l r e v i e w of a r b i t r a t i o n a w a r d s e x c e p t in c a s e s of a c t i o n s
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of the a r b i t r a t o r w h i c h are no t c o v e r e d b y the a r b i t r a t i o n c l au se of the a g r e e m e n t (see the s o - c a l l e d " S t e e l w o r k e r s T r il og y" : 363 U.S. 564, 574, a n d 593 (I960)). A n d the state s u p p o r t s p r i v a t e a r b i t r a t i o n t h r o u g h its F e d e r a l M e d i a t i o n an d C o n c i l i a t i o n Se rv ic e w h i c h p r o v i d e s lists (or pa ne ls ) w i t h n a m e s of a r b i t r a t o r s f r o m w h i c h the p a r t i e s can c h o o s e t h e i r a r b i t r a t o r . The same s e r v i c e is
a l so p r o v i d e d by the p r i v a t e A m e r i c a n A r b i t r a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n . S t a t u t o r y m e a s u r e s for e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n are r a re in the U n i t e d St at es ; si nc e the N e w Deal of the 1930ies, sp ecial p r o t e c t i o n for u n i o n m e m b e r s h a s b e e n g u a r a n t e e d by the N a t i o n a l L a b o r R e l a t i o n s B o a r d (" unfair labor p r a c t i c e s " ) . A n d in c a s e s of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in e m p l o y m e n t b e c a u s e of race, sex or age the g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c y E q u a l E m p l o y m e n t O p p o r t u n i t y C o m m i s s i o n ca n be m o b i l i z e d .
In ge neral, the U n i t e d Stat es s h o w f e w c o r p o r a t i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s in th e e m p l o y m e n t f i e l d o u t s i d e c o m p a n i e s . Bu t t h r o u g h local c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g at c o m p a n y level, form al an d s t ab le p r o c e d u r e s of c o l l a b o r a t i o n at le as t in b i g g e r c o m p a n i e s are i n s t a l l e d ( u s u a l l y c a l l e d g r i e v a n c e p r o c e d u r e s ) w h i c h can p r o v i d e e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n for so me i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r s . We c a n c o n c l u d e f r o m ou r b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l s k e t c h t h at it is no t j u s t sh o r t t e r m p o l i t i c s of e i t h e r S o c i a l i s t or C o n s e r v a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t s at w o r k w h e n i n s t i t u t i o n s of j u d i c i a l r e m e d y in e m p l o y m e n t r e l a t i o n s are i n t r o d u c e d . The d i c h o t o m y of a b s t e n t i o n i s m a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n i s m , s o m e t i m e s a t t r i b u t e d to i n c o m e s
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p o l i c y on th e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t si de a n d t r a d i t i o n a l I n d u s t r i a l • R e l a t i o n s p o l i t i c s on the a b s t e n t i o n i s t side (see W e d d e r b u r n
1984), is e v e r y w h e r e d e c r e a s i n g in the e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n p o l i c y f i e l d e x c e p t for the U n i t e d States. In ge neral, l a bo ur c o u r t s are no t d e s i g n e d to act as a s u b s t i t u t e for c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g b u t r a t h e r to e x t e n d p r o t e c t i o n in f i e l d s w h e r e c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g do es not e x i s t or w h e r e it shows d e f i c i e n c i e s . If st at e i n t e r v e n t i o n t a k e s the f o r m of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m in l a bo ur co ur ts , i n t e r e s t a s s o c i a t i o n s are able to e x t e n d i n f l u e n c e on r e g u l a t i o n of e m p l o y m e n t r e l a t i o n s e v e n b e y o n d c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g . In the f o l l o w i n g we w i l l a n a l y z e d e g r e e s of m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e of l a bo ur a d j u d i c a t i o n in ou r four c o u n t r i e s . We ca n us e o u r h i s t o r i c a l s k e t c h e s for t e n t a t i v e h y p o t h e s e s : G e r m a n y a n d B r i t a i n are l i k e l y to h a v e h i g h d e g r e e s of m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m ; F r a n c e s h o u l d be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by lo ca l c o r p o r a t i s m w h e r e a s th e U n i t e d S t at es s h o u l d s h o w a l o w d e g r e e of m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s m in l a bo ur a d j u d i c a t i o n .
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3. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l S t r u c t u r e a n d S u c c e s s R a t e s of the I n d u s t r i a l T r i b u n a l , of the G e r m a n L a b o u r Court, of the C o n s e i l de p r u d ' h o m m e s , an d of the A r b i t r a t i o n h e a r i n g
22
C o u r t s are o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h a b u r e a u c r a t i c st r u c t u r e , p e r s o n n e l a n d a h i e r a r c h i c a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c es s. We ca n start ou r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h an o v e r v i e w of l e ve ls of j u d i c i a l d i s p u t e r e s o l u t i o n w h i c h also are l e v e l s of r e v i e w o r appeal.
Chart 1: Levels and organizations of the judicial dispute resolution process of individual labour conflicts
dispute phases Great Britain West Germany
conciliation Advisory, labour court:
Conciliation and conciliation procedure Arbitration
Service (ACAS)
France United States
adjudication first appeal Industrial Tribunal labour court: judgment procedure
Employment Appeal State Labour Court (LAG) Tribunal (EAT)
Conseils de Prud1bonnes : (arbitration) conciliation procedure
(National Labor Relations Board, Equal Employment Conseils de Prud'homies: Opportunity judgment procedure Commission)
Cour d'appel
second appeal Court of Appeal Federal Labour Court (BAG) Cour de cassation
third appeal House of Lords (Federal Constitutional Court)
Court of Appeal Supreme Court We f i n d s e p a r a t e l a bo ur c o u r t s on the first le ve l of a d j u d i c a t i o n in G r e a t B r it ai n, W e s t G e r m a n y a n d Fr an ce . A d i f f e r e n c e ca n be o b s e r v e d w i t h r e s p e c t to c o n c i l i a t i o n w h i c h is c o n d u c t e d by a
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s e p a r a t e i n s t i t u t i o n (ACAS) in B r i t a i n w h e r e a s it is the fi r s t p h a s e of the l a b o u r c o u r t p r o c e d u r e in F r a n c e an d in G e r m a n y . The G e r m a n l a b o u r c o u r t s y s t e m is t o t a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m the o r d i n a r y j u d i c i a r y w h e r e a s a p pe al in the B r i t i s h a n d the F r e n c h s y s t e m leads in to the o r d i n a r y j u d i c i a l s y s t e m (in Fr ance, fi r s t a p pe al g o es to the c o u r d' appel; in Britain, fi rs t a p p e a l st il l r e s t s w i t h a labo ur c o u r t (EAT) w h i l e s e c o n d a p p e a l goes to the o r d i n a r y C o u r t of A p pe al ). The t h i r d " a p p e a l " to the G e r m a n F e d e r a l C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o u r t is pu t in b r a c k e t s b e c a u s e it is not c o n s i d e r e d to be a n o r m a l a p p e a l but r a t h e r c o n s i d e r e d a r i g h t of th e c i t i z e n to be p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a c ts i.e. of the BAG. Th is appeal d o es not p r e v e n t e n f o r c e m e n t of the BAG d e c i s i o n s ; the n u m b e r of c a s e s a d m i t t e d to be h e a r d by the C o n s t i u t i o n a l Co u r t is c o m p a r a b l e to the n u m b e r of l a b o u r l a w c a s e s in the H o u s e of L o r d s . The U n i t e d S t a t e s h a ve no l a b o u r c o u r t system; o n l y to a l i m i t e d d e g r e e d o p r i v a t e a r b i t r a t i o n a n d q u a s i - j u d i c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a g e n c i e s p e r f o r m f u n c t i o n s of e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n . A r b i t r a t i o n is u s u a l l y c a r r i e d ou t w i t h i n the c o m p a n y as the last s t ep in the g r i e v a n c e p r o c e d u r e . R e v i e w of a r b i t r a t i o n a w a r d s t h r o u g h n o r m a l c o u r t s is g e n e r a l l y e x c l u d e d .
The o l d e s t A m e r i c a n q u a s i - j u d i c i a l b o d y p e r f o r m i n g e m p l o y m e n t p r o t e c t i o n ta sk s is th e N a t i o n a l L a b o r R e l a t i o n s Board. It is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a dual o r g a n i z a t i o n a l st r u c t u r e : on the one side an i n v e s t i g a t i v e an d p r o s e c u t i v e s e c t i o n (G en er al C o u n s e l ) w h i c h
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i n d e p e n d e n t l y i n v e s t i g a t e s the facts in an "u n f a i r labor p r a c t i c e " c a se (e.g. in a c a se of d i s c h a r g e r e l a t e d to u n i o n m e m b e r s h i p ) ; a f t e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n the G e n e r a l C o u n s e l p r o s e c u t e s the e m pl oy er . P r o s e c u t i o n le ad s to a h e a r i n g w i t h i n the N a t i o n a l L a b o r R e l a t i o n s Boar d. This h e a r i n g is o r g a n i z e d by the s e c o n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l section, the Board. The B o a r d c o n s i s t s of the n a t i o n a l b o a r d and a n d s o - c a l l e d A d m i n i s t r a t i v e L a w J u d g e s w h o c o n d u c t the h e ar in gs . I n t e r n a l r e v i e w of d e c i s i o n s of th e s e j u d g e s lies w i t h the W a s h i n g t o n Board. A f t e r w a r d s a p pe al go es to the F e d e r a l D i s t r i c t C o u r t of A p p e a l and t h en to the S u p r e m e C o u r t . B e f o r e we as k s p e c i f i c a l l y ab ou t m e s o - c o r p o r a t i s t s t r u c t u r e s in l a b o u r c o n f l i c t i n s t i t u t i o n s w e c a n p r e s e n t a v a i l a b l e d a t a on o u t c o m e s a n d s u c c e s s ra te s in the I n d u s t r i a l Tribunal, the c o n s e i l de p r u d ' h o m m e s a n d th e l a bo ur court. In all four s y s t e m s do we f i n d w o r k e r s to be p l a i n t i f f s in m o r e t h an 90 per c e n t of the c a s e s .
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Table 1: Outcomes and Rates of Re-employment of the Industrial Tribunal System, of the German Labour Courts and of the conseil de prud'hommes in Unfair Dismissal Cases
Great Britain (1981) Germany (1978)
settlement 31% 60%
withdrawals and abandonments 32% 26%
decision 37% 14%
appeal against decisions 5% 49%
France (1979)
16%
31%
53%
57%
success of the applicant
in the decision 23% 50%
out of all applications:
actual re-employment 0.3% (IT) 9%
1.3% (ACAS)
(N-36.276) (N-97.164) (N-106.210)
Sources : Department of Employment Gazette (Dec. 1982) p. 520. Falke et al. 1981, Vol.II, p. 974, Uebersicht 4; Rhode 1983, pp. 192/3, Uebersicht 3. Ministère de la Justice (1981) Annuaire Statistique de la Justice 1979, p. 75; Moritz 1984, p. 76.
The a d j u d i c a t o r y f u n c t i o n of the G e r m a n l a b o u r c o u r t ju d g e in u n f a i r d i s m i s s a l c a s e s se em s r a t h e r li mited. O n l y 14% of the c a s e s ar e c o n t e s t e d in a h e a r i n g a n d n e e d a d e c i s i o n ( s t r e i t i g e s Ur teil). 60 per c e n t are s e t t l e d in court, e i t h e r in a s e p a r a t e c o n c i l i a t i o n p r o c e d u r e ( G u e t e v e r f a h r e n ) or in a j u d g m e n t p r o c e d u r e . The r e st are w i t h d r a w a l s or s u m m a r y j u d g e m e n t s i.e. j u d g m e n t s in ca s e s w h e r e e i t h e r one or b o t h p a r t i e s d i d not a p p e a r b e f o r e c o u r t a n d the j u d g e s ga ve t h e i r b r i e f o p i n i o n on the c a s e
