European University Institute EUROPEAN POLICY UNIT
In Collaboration With The UNIVERSITY OF STRASBOURG and
TEPSA
E.U.I. WORKING PAPER No. 85/153
THE INSTITUTIONS AND THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS IN THE DRAFT TREATY
by
Gianfranco Pasquino and Luciano Bardi
Badia Fiesolana, San Domenico di Fiesole (FI)
February 1985
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T h i s p a p e r m a y be c i t e d as f o r t h c o m i n g in: Bi e b e r , J a c q u e , a n d W e i l e r (eds.), A n E v e r - C l o s e r Unio n: A C r i t i c a l A n a l y s i s of th e D r a f t T r e a t y E s t a b l i s h i n g the E u r o p e a n U n i o n , in E u r o p e a n P e r s p e c t i v e s , L u x e m b o u r g . A l l r i g h t r e s e r v e d . N o p a r t of t h is p a p e r m a y be r e p r o d u c e d in an y f o r m w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n of the au t h o r . (c) E u r o p e a n P o l i c y U n i t P r i n t e d in I t a l y in F e b r u a r y 1985 E u r o p e a n U n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t e B a d i a F i e s o l a n a 50016 S. D o m e n i c o di F i e s o l e (FI) I t a l y
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T h e E u r o p e a n P o l i c y U n i t Th e E u r o p e a n P o l i c y Unit, at the E u r o p e a n U n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t e , w a s c r e a t e d to f u r t h e r t h r e e m a i n g o a l s . First, to c o n t i n u e the d e v e l o p m e n t of the E u r o p e a n U n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t e as a f o r u m f o r c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n of k e y i t e m s on th e C o m m u n i t y ag en da . Se co nd , to e n h a n c e the d o c u m e n t a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t o s c h o l a r s of E u r o p e a n a f f a i r s . Thir d, to s p o n s o r i n d i v i d u a l r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s on t o p i c s of c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t to the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t i e s . B o t h as i n - d e p t h b a c k g r o u n d s t u d i e s a n d as p o l i c y a n a l y s e s in t h e i r o w n right, th es e p r o j e c t s s h o u l d p r o v e v a l u a b l e to C o m m u n i t y p o l i c y - m a k i n g . In O c t o b e r 1984, the EPU, in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h th e U n i v e r s i t y of S t r a s b o u r g a n d T E PS A, o r g a n i s e d a c o n f e r e n c e to e x a m i n e in d e t a i l the D r a f t T r e a t y E s t a b l i s h i n g th e E u r o p e a n U n i o n . T h i s W o r k i n g P a p e r , p r e s e n t e d ait t h e c o n f e r e n c e a n d r e v i s e d in li g h t of the d i s c u s s i o n , w i l l a p p e a r in b o o k f o r m l a t e r in 1 9 85 a l o n g w i t h o t h e r s t u d i e s of th e D r a f t T r e a t y . F u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the w o r k o f the E u r o p e a n P o l i c y U n i t c a n be o b t a i n e d f r o m the D i r e c t o r , at the E u r o p e a n U n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t e in F l o r e n c e .
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*N S' f “ \ J
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1) I N T R O D U C T I O N *
The Dr af t T r e a t y e s t a b l i s h i n g the E u r o p e a n U n i o n c o n s t i t u t e s the m o s t t a n g i b l e p i e c e of e v i d e n c e of the ne w a s s e r t i v e n e s s of the d i r e c t l y e l e c t e d E u r o p e a n P a r l i a m e n t so far. In A l t i e r o S p i n e l l i ' s o w n word s, the E u r o p e a n P a r l i a m e n t d e c i d e d to assume, on b e h a l f of the c i t i z e n s w h i c h h a d e l e c t e d it, the t a sk of p r e p a r i n g a n d p r o p o s i n g a w i d e - r a n g i n g r e f o r m of the C o m m u n i t i e s after h a v i n g r e a l i z e d 'the o b v i o u s i m p o s s i b i l i t y of o v e r c o m i n g the g l a r i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n the ne ed s of E u r o p e an d the a b i l i t y of E u r o p e ru n by the C o u n c i l to r e s p o n d to t h e s e n e e d s '.(1)
T h e r e is w i d e s p r e a d a g r e e m e n t t h at m o s t of th e s h o r t c o m i n g s of the EC are du e to the i n a d e q u a c y of its i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d it is q u i t e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h at su ch a s t a u n c h E u r o p e a n i s t as S p i n e l l i s h o u l d d e v o t e so m u c h of e f f o r t to a p r o p o s a l l a r g e l y c e n t e r e d on i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e f o r m . W h e t h e r such e f f o r t w i l l e v e n t u a l l y p r o d u c e a d e q u a t e * A l t h o u g h the c o n c l u s i o n s an d g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h of this p a p e r h a v e b e e n e l a b o r a t e d jo in tl y, L u c i a n o B a r d i is p r i n c i p a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e for part 2 of this p a p e r an d G i a n f r a n c o P a s q u i n o for p a r t 3.
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r e s u l t s is thus a q u e s t i o n w h i c h f i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t r e q u i r e s an a s s e s s m e n t of the i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s i n c l u d e d in the D r a f t Tr e a t y . A n y a s s e s s m e n t of i n s t i t u t i o n a l ar c h i t e c t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y if st il l o n l y on paper, is a t a sk th at r e q u i r e s a h i g h d e gr ee of s p e c u l a t i o n . I n s t i t u t i o n a l b l u e p r i n t s a l wa ys p r e s e n t n u m e r o u s g a p s an d u n d e t e r m i n e d a s p e c t s w h i c h ma y p r o d u c e r e s u l t s s h a r p l y c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h th os e o r i g i n a l l y e n v i s a g e d by the d r a f t s m e n .(2) In the c a se of the D r a f t T r e a t y such an a s s e s s m e n t is m a de even m o r e d i f f i c u l t by the r a t h e r o b l i q u e a n d i m p r e c i s e w a y in w h i c h the d e s i r a b l e en d r e s u l t s are e x p o u n d e d b y Spinelli. One c a n o n l y d e d u c e th at Spinelli, c o n v i n c e d of the i n a d e q u a c y of the C o u n c i l ' s d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , e n v i s a g e s an i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e a t t r i b u t i n g m o r e d e c i s i o n a l p o w e r to the g e n u i n e l y s u p r a n a t i o n a l b o d i e s of the EC to the d e t r i m e n t of th os e e x p r e s s i n g i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p a t t e r n s .(3) If g r e a t e r s u p r a n a t i o n a l i s m s h o u l d p r o v i d e the s o l u t i o n to m o st EC problems, such a b r o a d s t a t e m e n t does not a l l o w for an a s s e s s m e n t of the in te rn al c o n s i s t e n c y of the set of i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s c o n t a i n e d in the D r a f t Tr e a t y . B e s i d e s p r o b l e m s s t e m m i n g f r o m de f e c t s of i n s t i t u t i o n a l b l u e p r i n t s in g e n e r a l an d of the D r a f t T r e a t y in p a r t i c u l a r , f u r t h e r a n a l y t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s are to be f o u n d in the at t e m p t to co me to gr i p s w i t h the (dynamic) n a t u r e of p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s . In v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l sy s t e m s a
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n u m b e r of i n s t i t u t i o n s h a ve b e e n k n o w n to e v o l v e in such a w a y as to ac qu ir e scope, i m p o r t a n c e and p o w e r s g o i n g w e l l b e y o n d th o s e s p e c i f i c a l l y p r o v i d e d for in th os e systems' c o n s t i t u t i o n s .
V e r y litt le ca n be done to fill out the g a ps an d to c l a r i f y the g r ay areas in the D r a f t Tr e a t y . To the e x t e n t to w h i c h s u ch a t a s k r e m a i n s u n s u c c e s s f u l , the a s s e s s m e n t of the D r a f t T r e a t y ' s i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s w i l l h a v e to re ly on a h i g h d e g r e e of s p e c u l a t i o n . But the o t h e r tw o sets of p r o b l e m s m e n t i o n e d ab ov e c a n h o p e f u l l y be c i r c u m v e n t e d m o re s a t i s f a c t o r i l y .
S p i n e l l i 's m o t i v e s m a y be a s s u m e d to be b a s e d on w h a t c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d an o b j e c t i v e a s s e s s m e n t of the p e r f o r m a n c e and, i n ev it ab ly , of the s h o r t c o m i n g s of the EC a n d its d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . But i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n , t h at is the p r o c e s s w h e r e b y i n s t i t u t i o n s a c q u i r e th e i r p o s i t i o n in the p o l i t i c a l system, ca n be m e a s u r e d at v a r i o u s p o i n t s in time on the b a s i s of o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a . As a m a t t e r of fact, i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n p r e s e n t s another, internal, aspect; that is the d e v e l o p m e n t in an o r g a n i z a t i o n of th o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s th at w i l l p e r m i t it to b e c o m e e x t e r n a l l y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d v i s - à - v i s o t h e r b o d i e s i n t e r a c t i n g in the sy stem. In p a r t i c u l a r , S a mu el
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H u n t i n g t o n a n d N e l s o n P o l s b y a g r e e that i n s t i t u t i o n s s h o u l d be ad ap ta bl e, au tonomous, r e a s o n a b l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t s an d c o m p l e x . (4) An e v a l u a t i o n of the p r e s e n t i n s t i t u t i o n a l b a l a n c e of th e EC s h o u l d p r o v i d e us b o t h w i t h an idea of the s h o r t c o m i n g s the Draft T r e a t y w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y a s p i r e to e l i m i n a t e a n d w i t h a m e a s u r e of the d e g r e e of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n r e a c h e d by e a c h r e l e v a n t EC b o d y u n d e r th e p r e s e n t T r e a t i e s . Such f i n d i n g s c o u l d be p r o j e c t e d in the light of the s p e c i f i c p r o v i s i o n s of the Dr af t Treaty. An a s s e s s m e n t of the i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s of the Dr af t T r e a t y w o u l d t h us d e p e n d on w h a t i n s t i t u t i o n s s h o u l d p r o v e to h a v e the g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l for f u r t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n . Our a t t e n t i o n w i ll be m o s t l y d e v o t e d to i n t e r n a l a s p e c t s of i n d i v i d u a l EC bodies' i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . But each i n s t i t u t i o n ' s i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t w i ll h a ve e x t e r n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s a f f e c t i n g all the ot he rs . Th e p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of the s y s t e m as a w h o l e w i l l d e p e n d on the o v e r a l l b a l a n c e of r e l a t i o n s h i p s in the EC i n s t i t u t i o n a l ci rcuit, an d in th is light our st ud y of i n d i v i d u a l i n s t i t u t i o n s is to be u n d e r s t o o d . I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n t h e o r y has be en c o n c e i v e d h a v i n g in m i n d the p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of the n a t i o n - s t a t e . C o n s i d e r i n g that the p r o p o s e d U n i o n in m a n y w a ys r e s e m b l e s a f e d e r a l state, it c a n be s t u d i e d w i t h the i n s t r u m e n t s
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p r o v i d e d by the theory. Th e p e c u l i a r n a t u r e of the i n c i p i e n t E u r o p e a n P o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , h o w e v e r , s u g g e s t s a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n tw o d i f f e r e n t sets of the c r i t e r i a p r o p o s e d by H u n t i n g t o n an d Polsby. A h i g h l y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d b o d y in the E u r o p e a n p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s h o u l d sc or e h i g h l y on all four, but w h i l e two of the cr it er ia , c o m p l e x i t y an d a d a p t a b i l i t y , c a n be s e en as i n d i c a t o r s of an i n s t i t u t i o n ' s p o t e n t i a l c a p a b i l i t y to p e r f o r m 'tasks of a u t h o r i t a t i v e r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t i o n , p r o b l e m so lving, c o n f l i c t s e t t l e m e n t an d so on', the o t h e r tw o criteria, a u t o n o m y an d d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n f r o m e n v i r o n m e n t , c o u l d a l so i n d i c a t e an i n s t i t u t i o n ' s p r o p e n s i t y to act as a t r u l y European, that is, su pr a n a t i o n a l , r a t h e r t h a n as an i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g b o d y .(5)
2) T H E I N S T I T U T I O N S OF T H E E U R O P E A N C O M M U N I T Y
a ) G e n e r a l p r o b l e m s
The i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t - u p of the EC ha s s u f f e r e d f r o m a n u m b e r of g e n e r a l p r o b l e m s , la r g e l y a t t r i b u t a b l e to d e f e c t s in the o r i g i n a l design. It is not our i n t e n t i o n he re to p r o c e e d to a s y s t e m a t i c e v a l u a t i o n of the m a l a i s e of the EC. Bu t a q u i c k o v e r v i e w is n e c e s s a r y for the c o n t i n u a t i o n of our analysis. As o t h e r s h a ve c o n v i n c i n g l y p o i n t e d out, the e v o l u t i o n of the EC ha s b e e n s e v e r e l y h i n d e r e d by the p e c u l i a r f e a t u r e s of the T r e a t y of Rome. L a c k i n g the
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f l e x i b i l i t y n o r m a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n s , the T r e a t y m a d e it i m p o s s i b l e for the EC to d e v e l o p b e y o n d a c e r t a i n point. E v en if 'there is some m o v e m e n t in the join ts of the Tr ea ty , p e r m i t t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n an d i n s t i t u t i o n a l e v o l u t i o n ... the v e r y l e n g t h an d s p e c i f i c i t y of the E u r o p e a n d o c u m e n t c o m p o u n d s the fact that it is a t r e a t y r e q u i r i n g u n a n i m o u s a p p r o v a l for ch ange', t h us m a k i n g it 'd if fe re nt f r o m a d o c u m e n t th at a l l o w s c h a n g e to be m a d e in it o n ly w i t h the su p p o r t of a large m a j o r i t y of its c o n s t i t u e n t m e m b e r s ' . (6) S u ch r i g i d i t y is in o p en c o n t r a s t w i t h the n e e d for f l e x i b i l i t y i m p l i c i t in the f u n c t i o n a l a n d n e o f u n c t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s e m b e d d e d in the T r e a t i e s . I n d i v i d u a l t h e o r i e s of i n t e g r a t i o n have f a i l e d a d e q u a t e l y to p r e d i c t an d e x p l a i n the e v o l u t i o n of the E C . (7) Some of the ma j o r p r o b l e m s a f f l i c t i n g the EC and its i n s t i t u t i o n s , h o we ve r, c a n be e x p l a i n e d by c o n s i d e r i n g the limits of the f u n c t i o n a l i s t p r i n c i p l e s th a t i n f o r m e d the o r i g i n a l c o m m u n i t a r i a n de si gn . C o n t r a r y to the ho p e s that i n t e r e s t a g g r e g a t i o n w o u l d mo r e and m o re o f t e n take pl ac e at the E u r o p e a n level (as the f o r m a t i o n of E u r o p e a n T r a d e Un i o n f e d e r a t i o n s w o u l d indicate), n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p s are p r o t e c t i n g a n d e n t r e n c h i n g t h e m s e l v e s r a t h e r t h an o v e r l a p p i n g (as the s a d r e a l i t y of w i n e and fi sh w a r s is showing), t h us c o n t r i b u t i n g to the e n d l e s s d i s p u t e s a m o n g the M e m b e r State g o v e r n m e n t s . The o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n to p r o t e c t th e C o m m i s s i o n , by i n s u l a t i n g it fr o m the n a t i o n a l go ve r n m e n t s ,
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r e s u l t e d in a d i v i s i o n of the p o l i c y - m a k i n g p r o c e s s al o n g f u n c t i o n a l l y d e t e r m i n e d lines, i n v o l v i n g the c o m p e t e n t b r a n c h e s of the n a t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a c i e s a n d u l t i m a t e l y s t r e n g t h e n i n g the n a t i o n - s t a t e .(8)
Mo re ov er , w h a t e v e r s p i l l - o v e r e f f e c t ha s i n d e e d t a k e n p l ac e, e n l a r g i n g the sc op e and a u g m e n t i n g the i m po rt of EC a c ti vi ti es , it has also u n d e r l i n e d the p r o b l e m of l e g i t i m a c y w i t h i n the C o m m u n i t y . C o m m i s s i o n e r s are i n d i v i d u a l l y a p p o i n t e d by the m e m b e r g o v e r n m e n t s w h i l e the C o m m i s s i o n as a w h o l e is s u b j e c t to the c e n s u r e of the E u r o p e a n P a r l i a m e n t . The p r o s p e c t of the p o s s i b l e t r a n s f e r of i m p o r t a n t p r e r o g a t i v e s to a v i r t u a l l y u n a c c o u n t a b l e s u p r a n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n has c o n t r i b u t e d g r e a t l y to the s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e C o u n c i l a n d to the e n t r e n c h m e n t of the u n a n i m i t y p r i n c i p l e . Ev er since the L u x e m b o u r g c o m p r o m i s e , u n a n i m i t y ha s b e e n the rule, a n d the fe w i n s t a n c e s in w h i c h m a j o r i t y vo t e s h a v e b e e n ta k e n in the C o u n c i l to o v e r r u l e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s ' p a r a l y z i n g v e t o e s m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d as s p o r a d i c e x c e p t i o n s . The r a t i o n a l e b e h i n d all th i s w o u l d be t h at u n a n i m i t y m a k e s e a ch m e m b e r g o v e r n m e n t r e s p o n s i b l e , an d a c c o u n t a b l e to its Pa rl i a m e n t , for e a c h C o u n c i l d e ci si on . Th e r e - i n t r o d u c t i o n of m a j o r i t y v o te w o u l d c r e a t e a 'dem oc ra ti c deficit' w h i c h c o u l d h a r d l y be f i l l e d u n d e r the p r e s e n t i n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s .(9)
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The t r e n d in favo ur of i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g w a s a l so r e i n f o r c e d by 'protective' r e a c t i o n s of g o v e r n m e n t s to the mo ne t a r y , e n e r g y a n d g e n e r a l e c o n o m i c c r i s e s of the s e v e n t i e s , c u l m i n a t i n g w i t h the o f f i c i a l i n c o r p o r a t i o n of the E u r o p e a n C o u n c i l as a C o m m u n i t y i n s t i t u t i o n in 1974. The e n l a r g e m e n t of the C o m m u n i t y , as w e l l as the c o n t i n u i n g e c o n o m i c d i f f i c u l t i e s e x p e r i e n c e d by all m e m b e r co u n t r i e s , b r o u g h t to the fore a n o t h e r m a j o r p r o b l e m of the Co mm un it y, that of 'own r e s o u r c e s ' . The C o m m u n i t y ha s 'a ri g h t to its o w n r e s o u r c e s , bu t it (has) no c l e a r r i g h t to r e s o u r c e s w h i c h (are) a d e q u a t e to p e r f o r m those ta s k s w h i c h (have) b e en r e q u i r e d of it'. Th e C o m m u n i t y t h e r e f o r e lacks a u t o n o m y and its p r o p e r f u n c t i o n i n g t o t a l l y d e p e n d s on s u p p l e m e n t a r y a l l o c a t i o n s d e c i d e d by the C o u n c i l an d u l t i m a t e l y by the m e m b e r s t a t e s . (10)
Last, bu t not least, as p o i n t e d out in the C o m m i t t e e of T h r e e R e p o r t on E u r o p e a n In s t i t u t i o n s , EC d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g has b e en a f f e c t e d by the 'general p h e n o m e n o n of an e x c e s s i v e l o a d of b u s i n e s s a g g r a v a t e d by s l o w an d c o n f u s e d h a n d l i n g (which) m a y be s u m m e d up in the one F r e n c h w o r d l o u r d e u r '.(11) Such a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n e f f i c i e n c y , p r o b a b l y o r i g i n a t e d b y the d e c l i n e of the i n s t i t u t i o n be st e q u i p p e d to e x p e d i t e t e c h n i c a l p r o c e d u r e s , the C o m m i s s i o n , f o u n d a r a t c h e t in the r e l a t i o n s h i p of i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e e x i s t i n g am on g the v a r i o u s EC i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d the c o n s e q u e n t n e ed for s e v e r a l r e v i s i o n s of the same s u b j e c t ma tt er .
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All of the fa c t o r s l i s t e d above, w h i l e h a v i n g a ge neral, a n d m o s t l y n e ga ti ve , i m p a c t on EC d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , have p r o d u c e d d i v e r g i n g e f f e c t s on i n d i v i d u a l in s t i t u t i o n s . But o n e c o u l d a l s o argue that the c o u r s e of e v e n t s c o u l d at least p a r t i a l l y d e p e n d on the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s i n g l e i n s t i t u t i o n s i n v o l v e d a n d th at an i n s t i t u t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n of the p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n of the EC ca n be at te mp te d. In o r d e r to do so, we shall e x a m i n e in c l o s e r d e t a i l the Co mm i s s i o n , the C o u n c i l of M i n i s t e r s w i t h its s p i n o f f an d a n c i l l a r y bo d i e s , a n d the E u r o p e a n P a r l i a m e n t , t r y i n g a l s o to asse ss the d e g r e e of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of e a c h i n s t i t u t i o n . As for the o t h e r m a j o r EC i n s t i t u t i o n , the C o u r t of Ju stice, the o n ly p r o b l e m seems to be, a c c o r d i n g to the T h r e e W i s e Men, th e p r e s e r v a t i o n of its p e r f e c t i n d e p e n d e n c e . The Court, th er ef or e, w i l l not be s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n s i d e r e d in th i s paper.
b ) Th e C o m m i s s i o n
In the T r e a t y of Rome, the C o m m i s s i o n w a s c o n c e i v e d as a g e n u i n e l y s u p r a n a t i o n a l body, d e s i g n e d to be the 'motor' of the C o m m u n i t y . A c c o r d i n g to the Treaty, the C o m m i s s i o n w a s m e a n t to be the i n i t i a t o r of C o m m u n i t y p o l i c y a n d g u a r d i a n of the Tr ea ti es , as w e l l as a m e d i a t o r a m o n g the M e m b e r S t at es a n d an a d m i n i s t r a t o r of the a f f a i r s of the C o m m u n i t y .
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Al l c o m m e n t a t o r s ag r e e that, af te r an in it ia l p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h the C o m m i s s i o n c a r r i e d out its ta sk s c o m p e t e n t l y an d e f f i c i e n t l y a l l o w i n g for the s u c c e s s f u l t a k e - o f f of the C o m m o n M a r k e t , th er e has b e e n a s t e a d y a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e d e c l i n e in its p o w e r s a n d f u n c t i o n - p e r f o r m i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s , to the p o i n t that n o w the C o m m i s s i o n o f t e n p r e p a r e s p r o p o s a l s a c t u a l l y i n i t i a t e d e l s e w h e r e (The E u r o p e a n C o u n c i l an d C o u n c i l of M i n i s t e r s on all e x t r a - T r e a t y p o l i c i e s ) . A p p l y i n g to the C o m m i s s i o n the H u n t i n g t o n - P o l s b y model, w h i c h m e a s u r e s a d a p t a b i l i t y on the b a s i s of an i n s t i t u t i o n ' s age, in the sense of its a c q u i r e d a b i l i t y to a t t r a c t n e w functions, one m u s t a t t r i b u t e the C o m m i s s i o n a v e r y lo w sc or e on this c r i t e r i o n .(12 ) The C o m m i s s i o n wa s s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l e q u i p p e d to p e r f o r m t h e t a s k s n e a t l y o u t l i n e d in the R o m e Tr e a t y . But as so on as c h a l l e n g e s (of an ec on om ic , t e c h n o l o g i c a l , an d e v en soci al a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l nature) ar os e f r o m se c t o r s o u t s i d e the o f f i c i a l b l u e p r i n t of the Treaty, the C o m m i s s i o n w a s u n a b l e t o r e s p o n d . The lack of a u t o n o m y the C o m m i s s i o n has in d i s p o s i n g of, let alone acquiring, its ow n r e s o u r c e s c a n c e r t a i n l y be c o n s i d e r e d a v e ry s e v e r e h a n d i c a p w h i c h has p r o g r e s s i v e l y h i n d e r e d the C o m m i s s i o n ' s p e r f o r m a n c e e v en in ar e a s d e s i g n a t e d as the C o m m i s s i o n ' s d o m a i n in the T r e a t y of Rome. If the u n w i l l i n g n e s s of the m e m b e r g o v e r n m e n t s to give u p a d d i t i o n a l p o r t i o n s of th ei r s o v e r e i g n t y wa s p r o b a b l y an u n s u r m o u n t a b l e o b s t a c l e for the C o m m i s s i o n , such a f a i l u r e
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wa s a l so p a r t i a l l y due to the C o m m i s s i o n ' s s t r u c t u r a l d e f i c i e n c i e s . In o t h e r words, the C o m m i s s i o n is not s u f f i c i e n t l y c o m p l e x to be able to m o ve into n e w p o l i c y a r ea s. Th is m i g h t s o u n d like a p a r a d o x g i v e n the large numb er of D i r e c t o r a t e s Ge neral, D i r e c t o r a t e s an d o t h e r s u b - u n i t s i n t o w h i c h the C o m m i s s i o n is d i v i d e d . But e v e n so, as we ha ve seen, the Th r e e W i se M e n tell us that the C o m m i s s i o n is o v e r l o a d e d ; it s i m p l y ha s t o o m u c h w o r k to do in its m u l t i f u n c t i o n a l p o s i t i o n as i n i t i a t o r of C o m m u n i t y policy, m e d i a t o r , a d m i n i s t r a t o r a n d g u a r d i a n of the Tr e a t y . On the ot h e r hand, as the v a r i o u s s u b d i v i s i o n s of the C o m m i s s i o n are d e t e r m i n e d by the to ta l n u m b e r of C o m m i s s i o n e r s a n d D i r e c t o r G e n e r a l s the M e m b e r S t a t e s are e n t i t l e d to, t h ey do not r e s p o n d to its a c t u a l t a s k - p e r f o r m i n g needs. As p o i n t e d out in the S p i e r e n b u r g report, th e r e is 'an i m b a l a n c e in the i m p o r t a n c e of the v a r i o u s p o r t f o l i o s (and the) d i s t r i b u t i o n of st af f b e t w e e n DG s does not a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t the g r o w t h of d e p a r t m e n t a l b u r d e n s ' . M a n y of the s u b - u n i t s t e n d to p e r f o r m a s i ng le fu nc ti on , u s u a l l y d e a l i n g w i t h h i g h l y t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s p e r t a i n i n g to a s i n g l e p o l i c y area, of t e n o v e r l a p p i n g w i t h the w o r k of ot h e r s u b - u n i t s b e l o n g i n g to d i f f e r e n t DGs. In c o n c l u s i o n , a l s o c o n s i d e r i n g that c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n the C o m m i s s i o n m o s t l y o c c u r s v e r t i c a l l y a n d a l m o s t ne v e r h o r i z o n t a l l y , not o n l y is the C o m m i s s i o n o v e r l o a d e d , bu t it also lacks the p o w e r of a f u n c t i o n a l l y c o m p l e x o r g a n i z a t i o n .
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The C o m m i s s i o n ' s l a ck of l e g i t i m a c y 'has c e r t a i n l y p r e v e n t e d it f r om m o v i n g into n e w ar ea s to m a i n t a i n p r o g r e s s an d m e e t fr e s h c h a l l e n g e s ' o n ce 'the d e t a i l e d g u i d a n c e c o n t a i n e d in the T r e a t i e s w a s g r a d u a l l y e x h a u s t e d '.(13) As p o i n t e d ou t by Er n s t B. Haas, the c o n c e p t of l e g i t i m a c y h i n g e s on p a r t i c i p a t i o n / r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e .(14) T h r o u g h the e a r l y ye a r s of the C o m m u n i t y the C o m m i s s i o n d r e w its l e g i t i m a c y f r om the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s of the m e m b e r go ve r n m e n t s , the s i g n a t o r i e s of the Treaty. Th e r e is e n o u g h e v i d e n c e that, w i t h the p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n of the h o n e y m o o n p e r i o d that f o l l o w e d the T r e a t y of Rome, the i n v e s t i t u r e g i v e n the C o m m i s s i o n by the m e m b e r g o v e r n m e n t s was c o n d i t i o n a l on the p r e s e r v a t i o n of some me a n s of n a t i o n a l c o n t r o l . T h e n a t i o n a l q u o t a s y s t e m w i t h w h i c h C o m m i s s i o n o f f i c i a l s are selected, e v e n if c o n s i d e r e d to be n o n- i n f l u e n t i a l in te rm s of the b e h a v i o r of i n d i v i d u a l C o m m i s s i o n e r s , c e r t a i n l y has an impact on the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i n t e g r i t y of the C o m m i s s i o n . At least o n e - t h i r d of the ve r y i m p o r t a n t A1 p o s i t i o n s (mostly D i r e c t o r G e ne ra ls ) is f i l l e d by 'parachuting' ou t s i d e r s , g e n e r a l l y n a t i o n a l civil servants, d i r e c t l y into the po si ti on , w h i l e the n u m b e r of D i r e c t o r G e n e r a l s w h o w o r k th ei r w a y u p f r o m s t a r t i n g p o s i t i o n s b e l o w A3 is v e r y small. The r e a s o n s and some of the i m p l i c a t i o n s of this s i t u a t i o n are c l e a r l y s t a t e d by St a n l e y H e n i g : It has a l wa ys b e e n c o n s i d e r e d u n d e s i r a b l e for
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o v e r a p a r t i c u l a r s e ct or o f p o l i c y m a ki ng . T h e r e is a g e n e r a l rule th at a C o m m i s s i o n e r a n d his d i r e c t o r g e n e r a l w i l l be of d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l i t i e s a n d a l so a b r o a d u n d e r s t a n d i n g that n o r m a l l y d i r e c t o r s a n d d i r e c t o r s g e n e r a l to w h o m t h ey w o r k w i l l be f r o m d i f f e r e n t co un tr ie s. T h is also a p p l i e s to h e a d s of d i v i s i o n a n d d i r e c t o r s . Si nc e e a c h c o u n t r y w i s h e s to p r e s e r v e its share of th es e s e n i o r post s, p r o c e d u r e s for the f i l l i n g of v a c a n c i e s m a y be c u m b e r s o m e . U n l e s s t h e r e is to be a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n b e t w e e n n a t i o n a l i t i e s i n v o l v i n g p o t e n t i a l u p h e a v a l in a n u m b e r of D G s , v a c a n c i e s at A3 level a n d ab ov e h a ve to be f i l l e d b y s o m e b o d y f r o m the c o u n t r y to w h o m th e p o st ' b e l o n g s ' . Th is f r e q u e n t l y n e c e s s i t a t e s o u t s i d e r e c r u i t m e n t at the b e h e s t of th at c o u n t r y e v e n if s u i t a b l e i n t e rn al c a n d i d a t e s of o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s are a v a i l a b l e . W h e r e po s t s are f i l l e d by in te rn al pr om ot io n, m e r i t w i l l o n l y be one f a ct or to be t a k e n into a c c o u n t . The c a r e e r p a t t e r n of an A7 e n t r a n t m a y we l l be l i m i t e d to a rise to A4 u n l e s s he or she is lu ck y e n o u g h to w i n w h a t a m o u n t s to p o l i t i c a l p a t r o n a g e .(15) A c c o r d i n g to a n o t h e r s t u d e n t of EC b u r e a u c r a c y the c o o p t a t i o n of n a t i o n a l o f f i c i a l s i n to the- d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s p r e s e n t s 'a m a j o r c h a l l e n g e to the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i d e n t i t y of the C o m m i s s i o n ' . M a n y such o f f i c i a l s see th e i r EC a p p o i n t m e n t as 'a u s e f u l i n t e r l u d e in th ei r n a t i o n a l career', and, w o r k i n g m a i n l y in t e c h n i c a l l y s p e c i a l i z e d c o m m i t t e e s an d s u b - c o m m i t t e e s i n v o l v i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of th e m e m b e r co un tr ie s, ne ve r d e v e l o p a sense of b e l o n g i n g to a E u r o p e a n c i v i l s e r v i c e . (16) T h e i r m i d - c a r e e r entry, f r u s t r a t i n g the a s p i r a t i o n s of y o u n g 'European' o f f i c i a l s m i g h t i n d e e d c o n t r i b u t e to the d e c l i n e of the p e r f o r m a n c e (and l e gi ti ma cy ) of the C o m m i s s i o n . All of th e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w a r r a n t for t h e C o m m i s s i o n th e a t t r i b u t i o n of a lo w s c o r e on the
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c o h e r e n c e / b o u n d a r y d e f i n i t i o n c r i t e r i o n p r o p o s e d b y the H u n t i n g t o n - P o l s b y m o d e l . (17)
c ) T he E u r o p e a n Council, the C o u n c i l of M i n i s t e r s an d C O R E P E R
G i v e n t h e i r m o s t l y i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , th e E u r o p e a n Coun ci l, CO REPER, an d the C o u n c i l of M i n i s t e r s can be c o n s i d e r e d , at least for a n a l y t i c a l purposes, as one i n s t i t u t i o n . I n d e e d C O R E P E R an d the E u r o p e a n C o u n c i l ca n be se en as r e s p o n s e s of the C o u n c i l of M i n i s t e r s to s h o r t c o m i n g s of the i n s t i t u t i o n a l set up of the E C . (18)
The Co un ci l, in its v a r i o u s m i n i s t e r i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , ha s b e e n e x p a n d i n g its p o l i c y - m a k i n g a n d e v e n p o l i c y - i n i t i a t i n g p o w e r s c h i e f l y to the d e t r i m e n t of the C o m m i s s i o n . In a p a r a l l e l f a s h i o n a n u m b e r of a c c e s s o r y i n s t i t u t i o n s have b e e n c r e a t e d (S ec retariat) or r e i n f o r c e d (COREPER), g i v i n g t h e i m p r e s s i o n th at the C o u n c i l itself is b e c o m i n g a p e r m a n e n t E u r o p e a n i n s t i t u t i o n c a p a b l e of g i v i n g c o n t i n u i t y a n d l o n g - t e r m p e r s p e c t i v e s to EC p o l i c y m a k i n g . In o r d e r to do so, the C o u n c i l still ne ed s the c o o p e r a t i o n of the i n s t i t u t i o n b e s t e q u i p p e d to e x p e d i t e t e c h n i c a l p r oc ed ur es , that is the C o m m i s s i o n . But C o u n c i l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g is a l so d e e p l y af fe c t e d , b o th in sc op e an d e f f i c i e n c y , by its n e e d to d e l e g a t e the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r e p a r a t i o n of its ow n d e c i s i o n s
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to s t a n d i n g or ad hoc w o r k i n g parties, set up by e i t h e r the C o u n c i l itself, or C O R E P E R or e v en the S p e c i a l C o m m i t t e e on A g r i c u l t u r e . Su ch w o r k i n g p a r t i e s have an e n o r m o u s i m p o r t a n c e in d e t e r m i n i n g the i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l n a t u r e of EC d e c i s i o n ma king. A c c o r d i n g to C h r i s t o p h Sasse th ei r 'de fa ct o a u t o n o m y ... leav es t h e m fr ee to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h d e c i s i o n s r e a c h the p o l i t i c a l ( C OR EP ER - Co uncil) level'. Despite, but m a y b e b e c a u s e of, this s e l d o m a c k n o w l e d g e d i m p o r t a n c e of w o r k i n g parties, t h e y are o f t e n s t a f f e d w i t h h o m e - b a s e d e x p e r t s w i t h v e r y l i tt le f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h EC m e t h o d s a n d p r o p e n s i t y for c o m p r o m i s e . The d e s i r e of some w o r k i n g - p a r t y m e m b e r s to p r e s e r v e u n c h a n g e d the n a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n ca n c o n s i d e r a b l y d e l a y or e v e n p r e v e n t the r e a c h i n g of d e c i s i o n s .(19) Th e c u m b e r s o m e d e c i s o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s , n o w a l mo st e x c l u s i v e l y c e n t e r e d on the C o u n c i l in its v a r i o u s fo rm s (Council(s) h e r e i n a f t e r ) , b e i n g b a s e d on l e n g t h y p r e p a r a t o r y s t ag es in ad hoc or s t a n d i n g c o m m i t t e e s at v a r i o u s levels, a n d i n v o l v i n g long b a r g a i n i n g s e s s i o n s a m o n g s t its own m e m b e r s an d a l wa ys r e q u i r i n g the m e d i a t i o n of the C o m m i s s i o n , are a r e f l e c t i o n of the i n s t i t u t i o n a l a m b i g u i t y of w h a t has n o w b e c o m e the m o st p o w e r f u l EC i n s t i t u t i o n .
In m a n y re sp ec ts , f r om the p o i n t of v i e w of the w o u l d - b e E u r o p e a n p o l i t i c a l system, the C o u n c i l ( s ) are n o n i n s t i t u t i o n s . Th e y are e v en less a u t o n o m o u s a n d c o h e r e n t th an the C o m m i s s i o n . In fact, the C o u n c i l ( s ) an d t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s
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are d i r e c t l y c o n t r o l l e d by the M e m b e r St at e g o v e r n m e n t t o w h i c h t h e i r m e m b e r s i n d i v i d u a l l y b e l o n g . E v e n the v a r i o u s a n c i l l a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s , su ch as C O R E P E R an d the w h o l e h o st of ad ho c or s t a n d i n g c o m m i t t e e s a n d w o r k i n g p a r t ie s,
p
re m o s t l y s t a f f e d w i t h n a t i o n a l ci v i l s e r v a n t s all h o l d i n g v e r y d i f f e r e n t v i e w s as to w h at is to be done an d h o w to do it.But the v e r y same n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t s a n d c i v i l se rv i c e s , w h i c h ma y be at least p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e for the d i s a p p o i n t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e of the C o m m u n i t y in r e c e n t years, b e s t o w u p o n the C o u n c i l th os e s o u r c e s of s t r e n g t h w h i c h the C o m m i s s i o n s o r e l y lacks. The C o u n c i l ( s ) d e r i v e f r o m the n a t i o n a l p a r l i a m e n t s , to w h i c h th ei r i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s are ac co u n t a b l e , the l e g i t i m a c y to act in any p o l i c y a r ea in the n a t i o n a l (as p a r t of E P C ) or in the c o m m u n i t a r i a n interest, w i t h or w i t h o u t the r u b b e r st am p of the Treaty. In this the C o u n c i l ( s ) , a l t h o u g h m e e t i n g s p o r a d i c a l l y an d in v a r i o u s p e r s o n n e l p e r m u t a t i o n s , have sh ow n r e m a r k a b l e a d a p t a b i l i t y e x p l o i t i n g the r e s o u r c e s of n a t i o n a l d i p l o m a t i c t r a d i t i o n s an d also c r e a t i n g n e w s t r u c t u r e s to p e r f o r m some of the n e w l y a c q u i r e d t a s k s . Th e w i d e sc op e of the p o w e r s of some of the C o u n c i l ( s ) an d the i n t e r c h a n g e a b i l i t y of some of the M i n i s t e r s i n v o l v e d h a ve a l s o g i v e n t h e m a sort of albe it d i s c r e t e f u n c t i o n a l c o m p l e x i t y .(20) L o o k e d at as i n t e g r a l pa r t s of the n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t s an d the c i v i l s e r v i c e s to w h i c h all th e i r m e m b e r s an d
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o f f i c i a l s al so belong, the C o u n c i l ( s ) a n d r e l a t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s e v en h a ve a h i g h d e g r e e of a u t o n o m y an d co h e r e n c e , ev e n if r e s u l t i n g f r o m c o m p r o m i s e a m o n g peers. d ) Th e E u r o p e a n P a r l i a m e n t The E u r o p e a n P a r l i a m e n t ha s b e en t e r m e d 'not m u c h of a p a r l i a m e n t ' a n d is m u c h m o r e o f t e n m e n t i o n e d for the p o w e r s it lacks t h an for the p o w e r s it do es h a v e . (21) F o r m a l l y the EP ha s b u d g e t a r y po we rs , c o n t r o l o v e r the ex e c u t i v e , a l e g i t i m i z i n g f u n c t i o n an d some l e g i s l a t i v e powers. In p r a c t i c e , howe ve r, d e s p i t e d i r e c t e l e c t i o n s , su c h p o w e r s r e m a i n r a t h e r limited.
P a r l i a m e n t ' s b u d g e t a r y p o w e r s are f o r m a l l y the m o s t i m p o r t a n t of all, bu t in p r a c t i c e they a m o u n t to m u c h less than c o m m o n l y b e li ev ed . B e i n g o n l y on the e x p e n d i t u r e , an d n o t the re ve nu e, side, t h e y h a v e v e r y litt le impa ct on p o li ci es . E v e n the po we r to r e j e c t the b u d g e t as a w h o l e has o n l y m i n o r p r a c t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s g i v e n the p r o v i s i o n g r a n t i n g the C o m m i s s i o n m o n t h l y a p p r o p r i a t i o n s (on the ba s i s of th e p r e v i o u s y e a r bu dg et ) u n t i l the n e w b u d g e t is a p p r o v e d . (22) P a r l i a m e n t ca n o n l y a m e n d n o n - c o m p u l s o r y e x p e n s e s , that is e x p e n s e s p e r t a i n i n g to p o l i c i e s not e x p l i c i t l y p r o v i d e d for in the Tr ea ti es . Th es e e x p e n s e s do no t a m o u n t to m o r e t h an t w e n t y p e r c e n t of the w h o l e budget,
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an d P a r l i a m e n t alone c a n i n c r e a s e t h e m o n l y t h r o u g h a v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d p r o c e d u r e a n d not by v e r y much. As the p o w e r s to p r o p o s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s of c o m p u l s o r y e x p e n d i t u r e an d to d i s c h a r g e the b u d g e t are e v e n we ak er , P a r l i a m e n t is a f f o r d e d v e r y fe w o p p o r t u n i t i e s to a l l o c a t e re so ur ce s, let al on e r a i s e them. As a m a t t e r of fact, P a r l i a m e n t does not e v e n have c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o v e r its ow n e x p e n d i t u r e , nor do es it d e t e r m i n e the s a l a r y leve ls of MEPs, w h i c h is done by the m e m b e r g o v e r n m e n t s on the ba si s of n a t i o n a l p a r l i a m e n t a r y s a l a r i e s .(23) MEPs a l so lament the n o n - e x i s t e n c e of a st at ut e of the E u r o p e a n P a r l i a m e n t a r i a n . Th is p l a c e s t h e m in a s i t u a t i o n of o b j e c t i v e p e r s o n a l an d c o l l e c t i v e d i s a d v a n t a g e w i t h r e s p e c t to all o t h e r EC an d n a t i o n a l o f f i c i a l s .
Al l of the ab ov e fa c t o r s do not f a v o u r the a u t o n o m y and the c o h e r e n c e / b o u n d a r y - d e f i n i t i o n of Pa rl i a m e n t , d e s p i t e the r e l a t i v e l y sm al l n u m b e r of dual m a n d a t e s left af te r d i r e c t e l e c t i o n s .(24) An e v a l u a t i o n of the i m p o r t a n c e of the o t h e r p o w e r s of P a r l i a m e n t e n t a i l s a d i s c u s s i o n of its s i n g u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h o t h e r EC in s t i t u t i o n s . P a r l i a m e n t has the p o w e r to d i s m i s s the C o m m i s s i o n by a q u a l i f i e d m a j o r i t y vote. D i s m i s s a l of the C o m m i s s i o n w o u l d be a v e r y d r a c o n i a n m e a s u r e c o m p a r e d to its effe ct s, a n d as such it has n e v e r b e e n u s e d . I n any event, the n e w C o m m i s s i o n w o u l d still be a p p o i n t e d b y the m e m b e r g o v e r n m e n t s . This f e a t u r e of the EC i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t - u p also b e l i t t l e s the l e g i t i m i z i n g f u n c t i o n of the E P , since it has no e x e c u t i v e b o dy to a p p o i n t an d to
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invest w i t h the l e g i t i m a c y it draws f r o m the E u r o p e a n p e o p l e t h r o u g h d i r e c t e l e c t i o n s .
The l e g i s l a t i v e p o w e r s of the EP a m ou nt to the p o w e r to e x p r e s s o p i n i o n s on C o m m i s s i o n p r o p o s a l s w i t h v e r y litt le or no i m pa ct on the l e g i s l a t i v e output. The e m e r g e n c e of the E u r o p e a n C o u n c i l as the p r i m a r y p o l i c y - m a k i n g u n it has in fact w e a k e n e d the E P 's po si ti on , as it ha s no o r g a n i c r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the f o r m e r body. As p o i n t e d out in the V e d e l report, the E P 1s ' c o n s u l t a t i v e f u n c t i o n is i m p a i r e d by t h e fact that, a l t h o u g h the C o m m i s s i o n seeks the s u p p o r t of the P a r l i a m e n t , it e n t e r s into n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h the C o u n c i l e v e n b e f o r e s u b m i t t i n g its f o r m a l p r o p o s a l s to the latter'. G i v e n the p a u c i t y an d s c ar ce s a l i e n c e of P a r l i a m e n t ' s p o w e r s a n d f u n c t i o n s l i t t l e c a n be s a i d ab ou t its (functional) c o m p l e x i t y an d a d a p t a b i l i t y . A f t e r d i r e c t el ec ti on s, ho we ve r, w i t h the p a r a l l e l i n c r e a s e in the size of the A s s e m b l y , the EP has d e v e l o p e d a m o r e d i v e r s i f i e d st ru ct ur e. A t the same t i m e some of its su b- un it s, su c h as the p a r l i a m e n t a r y groups, have b e c o m e t h e m s e l v e s m o r e salient, w h i l e the scope an d n u m b e r of a c t i v i t i e s of the EP se em s to h a v e a l s o in cr ea se d. B o o s t e d by its n e w l e g i t i m a c y the EP ha s b e c o m e m o r e v o c a l o n a n u m b e r of issues, s u c h as c i v i l r i g h t s a n d n u c l e a r d e te rr en ce , h a v i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s o n a n c e . The v e r y D r a f t T r e a t y w e are h e r e e x a m i n i n g is the t e s t i m o n y of the E P 's a t t e m p t to give i t s e l f th e p o w e r s a n d f u n c t i o n s of a c o n s t i t u e n t a s se mb ly .
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c ) E C d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g : I n s t i t u t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n
The m a i n t h r u s t of S p i n e l l i ' s a r g u m e n t is that the C o m m u n i t y h a s to a d o p t a n e w T r e a t y not o n l y to f u l f i l l the f e d e r a l i s t d r e a m but a l so b e c a u s e the p r e s e n t p a t t e r n s of i n t e r - g o v e r n m e n t a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g are to a large e x te nt r e s p o n s i b l e for the i n e f f i c i e n c y of EC m a c h i n e r y an d for the d e c l i n i n g a p p e a l of the E u r o p e a n ideal in at least so me of the M e m b e r States. S p i n e l l i ' s m a i n m o t i v e is w e ll g r ou nd ed , but to f i nd an e f f e c t i v e cure for the C o m m u n i t y ' s m a l a i s e one ha s to g o b e y o n d the 'lack of p o l i t i c a l will' ex p l a n a t i o n , b a r r i n g w h i c h no s o l u t i o n ca n be found. 'P ol it ic al will' is a v e r y fu z z y term, an d a v e r y d i f f i c u l t v a r i a b l e to o p e r a t i o n a l i z e . It ca n be c o n s i d e r e d as a d i c h o t o m o u s v a r i a b l e (either n e g a t i v e or po s i t i v e ) , but, p r o b a b l y more a c cu ra te ly , as a c o n t i n u o u s one, m e a s u r a b l e on a scale. A l t h o u g h the m o t i v e s of the n a t i o n a l s t at es w i l l p r o b a b l y a l w a y s be p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c , t h e y m i g h t ad op t p r o - E u r o p e a n s t r a t e g i e s on the b a s i s of some of th os e v e r y m o t i v e s . As a r e s u l t of the c o m b i n a t i o n of v a r i o u s p r o- or a n t i - E u r o p e a n im pu l s e s , on e c o u l d c o n c e i v e s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e the ov e r a l l 'p ol it ic al will' m i g h t be n e u t r a l or ev en m o d e r a t e l y p o s i t i v e w i t h r e s p e c t to E u r o p e a n i n t e g r a t i o n . It do es not s e e m to be f a r f e t c h e d to put fo rt h the h y po th es is , s u p p o r t e d by se v e r a l f e d e r a l a n d c o n s o c i a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s , that the p r e s e n c e of a d e q u a t e i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s m i g h t a c t u a l l y h e l p shape
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the ' p o l i t i c a l will' of the v a r i o u s w o u l d be m e m b e r s of the U n i o n .(25)
A s o l u t i o n to the p r e s e n t p r o b l e m s of the EC m i g h t t h e r e f o r e be f o u n d by t r y i n g to see w h a t is w r o n g w i t h its i n s t i t u t i o n s . But in o r d e r to a v o i d the p i t f a l l s of inane t a u t o l o g i e s , one has to a c c e p t the v i e w th at EC i n st it ut io ns ' d e f i c i e n c i e s m a y h a ve o t h e r (struc tu ra l) c a u s e s t h an the s i m p l e fact that m e m b e r g o v e r n m e n t s do not w a n t t h e m to work.
The C o m m u n i t y is still an e m b r y o n i c p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m an d it w o u l d be n a i v e to e x p e c t a h i g h d e g r e e of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of its d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g bodies. The low s c o r e s for the th re e b o d i e s we h a ve c o n s i d e r e d on the v a r i o u s c r i t e r i a of i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s h o u l d not c o m e as a s u r p r i s e . W h a t c a n be m o r e d i s t u r b i n g for the 'European' c a u s e is the t r e n d t o w a r d s a lo we r level of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the e v o l u t i o n of the C o m m i s s i o n , w h i l e the C o u n c i l ( s ) s e e m to h a ve at le as t th e a d a p t a b i l i t y to fill the v a c u u m . (26) The c o m b i n a t i o n of these two t r e n d s is at the b a s i s of the d e c r e a s i n g dy na mi sm , e f f i c i e n c y a n d u l t i m a t e l y 'E u r o p e a n i s m ' of EC d e c i s i o n m a k i n g .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , as m e n t i o n e d in an e a r l i e r footnote, the H u n t i n g t o n / P o l s b y m o d e l g i v e s us c r i t e r i a to m e a s u r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n but does not e x p l a i n it. It ha s b e e n
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s u g g e s t e d t h at the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of an o r g a n i z a t i o n m i g h t be f a v o u r e d by a c t i v i t i e s of its m e m b e r s d e s i g n e d to o b t a i n c r e d i t v i s - à - v i s th os e to . w h i c h t h e y are a c c o u n t a b l e .(27) This is c e r t a i n l y not the p l a c e to a t t e m p t a r e v i s i o n of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n theory, an d it m i g h t be e n o u g h to say th at the l e g i t i m a c y an d a c c o u n t a b i l i t y of an o r g a n i z a t i o n m u st be i m p o r t a n t p r e - r e q u i s i t e s for its i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n .
As w e h a ve seen, the l e g i t i m a c y of the C o m m i s s i o n re s t s o n the s p e c i f i c p r o v i s i o n s of the T r e a t y a n d as such the n e g a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t of the C o m m i s s i o n ca n be e x p l a i n e d w i t h the g r a d u a l e x h a u s t i o n of the tasks p r o v i d e d for in the T r e a t y or w i t h th e i r d e c l i n i n g i m p o r t a n c e v i s - à - vi s the e m e r g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a l l e n g e s (economic crisis, t e c h n o l o g i c a l gap, d e f e n s e c o n c e r n s etc). S t r i c t l y speaking, f r o m an EC p e r s p e c t i v e , the C o u n c i l ( s ) also p r e s e n t a v e r y lo w level of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n , a n d th ei r r e m a r k a b l e a d a p t a b i l i t y in c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n s c o u l d be h a r d to e x p l ai n. But th e C o u n c i l ( s ) h a v e an 'u n f a i r 'a d v a n t a g e o v er the C o mm is si on , w h i c h stems f r o m t h e i r p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n the E u r o p e a n p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m a n d the set of the n a t i o n a l ones a n d allows t h e m to e s c a p e the s t r a i t - j a c k e t r e p r e s e n t e d by the Treaty. If one c o n s i d e r s the C o u n c i l ( s ) as a n e g o t i a t i n g f o r u m for the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the v a r i o u s b r a n c h e s of the n a t i o n a l
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g o v e r n m e n t s , r a t h e r t h an as an i n s t i t u t i o n of the EC, th e p i c t u r e looks v e ry d i f f e r e n t . 'The a g r e e m e n t to agree' p r e v a i l i n g in the C o u n c i l m i g h t be m o re t h an a d e q u a t e to g i ve it the r e q u i s i t e c o h e r e n c e . The i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s of the C o u n c i l r e c e i v e th e i r l e g i t i m a c y f r om th e i r r e s p e c t i v e n a t i o n a l P a r l i a m e n t s to p u r s u e the n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t (albeit d i s g u i s e d as a E u r o p e a n on e) . A n d as b r a n c h e s of the n a t i o n a l c i v i l s e r v i c e s they i n d i v i d u a l l y have e v en m o re co h e r e n c e , autonomy, and sense of c o l l e g i a l i t y ; in a w o r d m o r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n . The d e s i r e to s t ri ke the be s t p o s s i b l e b a r g a i n m i g h t p r o d u c e in the s h o r t t e r m i n d i v i d u a l p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s not r a d i c a l l y d i v e r g i n g f r o m t h o s e h y p o t h e t i c a l l y m a de by a s u p r a n a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y in the 'g eneral in te re st '. Bu t the l o n g - t e r m p e r s p e c t i v e s are v e r y di f f e r e n t . The u l t i m a t e goal of the m e m b e r s of the C o u n c i l ( s ) is not the p u r s u i t of a 'general in te re st '. Hence the d i s r e g a r d for the d e v e l o p m e n t of a d e q u a t e s t r u c t u r e s a n d the lack of c o m p l e x i t y to c a r r y out the e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g w o r k - l o a d . H e n c e the i n e f f i c i e n t o p e r a t i o n of EC m a c h i n e r y .
The E u r o p e a n P a r l i a m e n t is the 'odd ma n out' of the s i t u a t i o n . It is n o w the o n l y b o d y w i t h c o n t i n u i n g 'European' l e g i t i m a c y am on g t h o s e we h a ve c o n s i d e r e d . As s u ch it is s t r u g g l i n g to w a r d s the a c q u i s i t i o n of n e w fu n c t i o n s , of m o r e a u t o n o m y a n d of a g r e a t e r sense of p u rp os e. But is is t o o
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ear ly to say w h e t h e r th is t r e n d t o w a r d s g r e a t e r i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n w i l l be e n o u g h to c a r r y it b e y o n d the limi ts of its formal po wers.
S u m m i n g up, the C o m m i s s i o n is p r o b a b l y still the b e s t e q u i p p e d i n s t i t u t i o n to c a r r y ou t the tasks p e r t a i n i n g to the f u n c t i o n i n g of the Co m m u n i t y . Parl ia me nt , on the o t h e r hand, is the o n l y i n s t i t u t i o n h a v i n g the E u r o p e a n l e g i t i m a c y to s u s t a i n its i n i t ia ti ve s. Ironic al ly , th ei r v e r y s u p r a n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r has n e g a t i v e l y a f f e c t e d th ei r i n t e r n a l an d e x t e r n a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n in the E u r o p e a n P o l i t i c a l system. The d e v e l o p m e n t of b o t h i n s t i t u t i o n s has b e e n h i n d e r e d by their b e i n g s u b j e c t to the r i g i d i t y of the Tr ea ti es . The v e r y p r e c i s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n in the T r e a t y of the C o m m i s s i o n ' s c o m p e t e n c e s seems to h a ve d e n i e d it the l e g i t i m a c y to ad ap t to the p e r f o r m a n c e of the ne w f u n c t i o n s r e q u i r e d for the p r e s e r v a t i o n an d e x p a n s i o n of the system. In ot h e r words, the l i m i t s p o s e d on the i n t e r n a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of the C o m m i s s i o n h a v e p r e v e n t e d its e x t e r n a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n as we l l . In the c a se of P a r l i a m e n t the e x a c t o p p o s i t e has oc cu rr ed , as the v e r y l i m i t e d e x t e r n a l p o w e r s a f f o r d e d it by th e T r e a t i e s h a ve d i s c o u r a g e d any sort of in te rn al i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n . (28)
The C o u n c i l ( s ) , on the o t h e r hand, ha v e b e en able to b y p a s s the r i g i d i t y of the T r ea ti es , thus b e c o m i n g the mo st i m p o r t a n t EC d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g in s t i t u t i o n s . Th ei r v e r y
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in ter g o v e r n m e n t a l n a t u r e ha s not o n l y gi v e n t h e m ad hoc short t e r m go a l s a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y e n o r m o u s f l e x i b i l i t y , but has also p e r m i t t e d t h e m to u t i l i z e the m a t e r i a l an d i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s of the M e m b e r States. H e r e it w o u l d s e e m that e x t e r n a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n m i g h t be f a v o r a b l e to the i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t of the C o u n c i l ( s ) , b u t the p i c t u r e is not v e r y clear. The e x i s t e n c e of an i n s t i t u t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d to c a r r y out t e c h n i c a l ta sk s has i n d u c e d the C o u n c i l to e l i c i t the c o o p e r a t i o n of the C o m m i s s i o n e v en for t h o s e p o l i c y areas o u t s i d e its c o m p e t e n c e . It is p o s s i b l e that the s t r u c t u r e s the C o m m i s s i o n has d e v e l o p e d to a c c o m m o d a t e the r e q u e s t s of the Co u n c i l ( s ) w i l l g i ve it on ce m o re a mo r e c r u c i a l role, m a de p o s s i b l e b y the i n t e r n a l w e a k n e s s of the C o u n c i l ( s ) at the E u r o p e a n level. 3) I N S T I T U T I O N A L R E F O R M IN THE D R A F T T R E A T Y FOR A E U R O P E A N U N I O N a ) The n e w i n s t i t u t i o n a l c i r c u i t If the d i a g n o s i s is correct, th o s e b o d i e s h a v i n g w e a k e r s u p r a n a t i o n a l i n c l i n a t i o n s h a ve s h o w n g r e a t e r i n s t i t u t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l an d a b i l i t y to face the d i f f i c u l t i e s of the C o m m u n i t y . Th e Co u n c i l ( s ) h a v e d i s p l a y e d a d e q u a t e a d a p t a b i l i t y an d ha v e b e e n able to r e l y on M e m b e r St at e
