A
DIFFERENT
SPIRITUAL
A
DIFFERENT
SPIRITUAL
The world, what exactly is it?
Taoism: it is man’s world
Buddism: it is one of the six destines
God: it is the battlefield between heaven and hell
Philosophy: it is the infinite dialectical mist;
Physics: it is the polymer piled out of the basic particles
Humanity: it is existence;
History: it is the accumulation of time.
The world, what exactly is it?
Taoism: it is man’s world
Buddism: it is one of the six destines
God: it is the battlefield between heaven and hell
Philosophy: it is the infinite dialectical mist;
Physics: it is the polymer piled out of the basic particles
Humanity: it is existence;
History: it is the accumulation of time.
A different spiritual world
Foreword PART 1
1. The history of psychiatry
1.1 During the ancient times1.1.1 The origin of “psychiatry”
1.1.2 The cognition of “mental diseases” 1.1.3 The treatment of “mental diseases”
1.2 During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
1.2.1 Social background and cognition 1.2.2 Treatment method
1.3 During the 18th century
1.3.1 The cognition at the rational age 1.3.2 Treatment methods
1.4 During the 19th century
1.4.1 Cognition and background of mental diseases 1.4.2 Therapy methods
1.5 Contemporary mental illness
1.5.1 mental disorder 1.5.2 Classifications 1.5.3 Diagnosis 1.5.4 Psychotherapy 1.5.5 Medication 1.5.6 Other
1.6 Mental illness pandemic
1.6.1 Major Depressice Disorder 1.6.2 Obsessive-compulsive disorder 1.6.3 Schizofrenia
1.6.4 Compulsive hoarding 1.6.5 Posttraumatic stress disorder 1.6.6 Eating disorder
2. Artistic therapy
2.1 Definitions2.2 The history of art therapy
2.3 The forms of art therapy
2.4 Applicable objects and application of art therapy 2.4.1 Mental illness 2.4.2 Education 2.4.3 Jail 2.4.4 Community 2.4.5 Disaster or accident 2.4.6 Hospital
3. Mental diseases and art
3.1 Painting3.1.1 Albrecht Durer – Melancholia(1514)
3.1.2 Vittore Carpaccio – The Healing of the Possessed Man at the Rialto (c. 1496)
3.1.3 Francisco Goya--The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters(1799) 3.2 Film 3.2.1 A beautiful mind 3.2.2 The aviator --2004 3.2.3 Blessed by fire 3.2.4 Melancholia-- 2001 3.3 Literature 3.3.1 Norwegian wood 3.3.2 Tender is the night
3.4 Cartoon
3.4.1 With the light 3.4.2 Say hello to black jack
3.5 Art
3.5.1 Hiromi Tango exhibits sculptural and neon works for promised 3.5.2 Christopher payne asylum
A different spiritual world
Foreword PART 2
4. Project
4.1 Mudec museum 4.1.1 Introduce 4.1.2 Analysis4.2 Site analysis of the exhibition
4.2.1 Exhibition area 4.2.2 Functional area dicision 4.2.3 Layout
4.2.4 Visit route 4.2.5 Visit time line 4.2.6 Density 4.2.7 Lighting systems 4.2.8 Display system
4.3 Detail space-1 General exhibition 4.3.1 Entrance
4.3.2 Introduction to the exhibition 4.3.3 Room1.2
4.4 Detail space-2 Theme exhibition
4.4.1 Major Depressice Disorder
a. PART 1 Learn about Major Depressice Disorder
b. PART 2 Experience
c. PART 3 Treatment case
4.4.2 Obsessive-compulsive disorder
a. PART 1 Learn about Obsessive-compulsive disorder
b. PART 2 Experience
c. PART 3 Treatment case
4.4.3 Schizophrenia
a. PART 1 Learn about Schizophrenia
b. PART 2 Experience
c. PART 3 Treatment case
4.4.4 Compulsive hoarding
a. PART 1 Learn about Compulsive hoarding
b. PART 2 Experience
c. PART 3 Treatment case
4.4.5 Posttraumatic stress disorder
a. PART 1 Learn about Posttraumatic stress disorder
b. PART 2 Experience
c. PART 3 Treatment case
4.4.6 Eating disorder
a. PART 1 Learn about Eating disorder
b. PART 2 Experience
c. PART 3 Treatment case
My inspiration comes from Genius or Psychotic, a novel adapted from several real stories. The main characters of each story form a special group – people with mental illness. I think the author wants to convey an idea that due to differences in individual perspectives, there are surely divergences in ways of thinking and reasoning. The author is more willing to believe that the so-called “people with mental illness” are only different in their perspective and way of thinking. In the book, the author describes loads of such cases, explicating their smart ideas and their thinking logic, observing the world from their point of view, putting on their shoes and inspecting ourselves. I am attracted by his idea, though it sounds a bit incredible. I was inspired, and became interested in the world of these people, and
how they see the world? So I began to collect information about mental illness. After a painstaking research, I realised that novel is, after all, fictional, and is far from reality. I was shocked upon a WHO report "One in four people in the world will be affected by mental or neurological disorders at some point in their lives. Around 450 million people currently suffer from such conditions, placing mental disorders among the leading causes of ill-health and disability worldwide. Treatments are available, but nearly two-thirds of people with a known mental disorder never seek help from a health professional. Stigma, discrimination and neglect prevent care and treatment from reaching people with mental disorders, says the World Health Organization (WHO). Where there is neglect,
Preface
there is little or no understanding. Where there is no understanding, there is neglect. A lack of urgency, misinformation, and competing demands are blinding policy-makers from taking stock of a situation where mental disorders figure among the leading causes of disease and disability in the world, says WHO. Depressive disorders are already the fourth leading cause of the global disease burden. They are expected to rank second by 2020, behind ischaemic heart disease but ahead of all other diseases." The findings revealed the cruelty of the real world, and exposed a serious issue. The more I can understand their ideas, the more pain I can feel on them, which makes me even more interested in the subject. I want to keep people with more attention to this group, to understand and help this group. In the process, I see not only their
deficiencies, but also their beauty, wisdom, creativity, so that I become more considerate and tolerant. In the meantime, I’d like everyone to realise that mental illness is not so unbearable or horrible. As the Chinese saying goes, “treat a disease early before it takes a hold”. Mental illness, like other diseases, should be spotted, treated as early as possible to maximize the probability of rehabilitation. However, most people are poorly informed of such illnesses and feel panic about them. When it happens, the patients’ family, or even the patient himself may not be aware of that, and therefore unable to seek professional help timely. We should be more accepting to mental illnesses, either for others’ sake or for our own good.
1. The history of psychiatry
History proves that the development of psychiatry was not only
restricted by the level of medical science in those days, but also
influenced by the dominant social ideology in those days.
The word psychiatria originates from Greek language. Psyche has the meaning of spirit and soul and iatria means treatment, or psychiatry has the meaning of treating soul diseases. Ancient people believed in the existence of soul which did not depend on body, holding that soul may get sick or treated. In the western history of psychiatric medicine, the early records in connection with dysphrenia were written in Greek 1.
1. [ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 1.]
1.1 During the ancient times
Figure3.Description ：Hippocrates Artist : Peter Paul Rubens Date : 1638
In the 5th century B.C., people thought that psychotics patients, especially those having hereditary insanity, had inherent supernatural ability1 . The concept was still continued in
the era of ancient Greek and ancient Roman2
. Many records are filled with the theory of possession by the devil. Ancestors regarded the abnormal (psychotic patients) as the product of remote or supernatural force – motion of celestial body, revenge of the god and the manipulation of devil3 . However, Hippocrates
(460-377 B.C.), a medical scientist in ancient Greek, thought that psychotic patients were caused by natural factors and needed to be treated medically like other diseases of body. Dysphrenia proposed by him may originate from physiological abnormality 4.
1 2. [ Elkes, A. & Thorpe, J.G. (1967). A Summary of Psychiatry. London: Faber & Faber, p. 13.] 3. [America] Lauren B Alloy/John/H/Riskind. Abnormal Psychology [M] (9th edition). Shanghai: Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Press, 2005, 12-14]. 4. [ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 1.ISBN 978-0-471-24531-5]
Therefore, he proposed the theory of bodily pathology of psychiatry, holding that four types of body fluid were existent in the human body: blood, mucus, yellow bile and black bile, which were just like fire, soil, air and water existing in nature. If the four types of body fluid can be mixed normally, people will be healthy. If one type takes too much or too less, or their mutual relations are abnormal, people will get sick. For example, depression is caused by too much black bile existing in human body, which enters the brain to damage its activity. However, the concept was not further explored due to fall of Roman Empire 5. He is considered as the founder of
scientific medicine and the father of psychiatry. He is also a philosopher of materialism.
5. [ Shorter, E. (1997). A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 1.]
A universal method for treating mental diseases is: cheat or force devil to leave the body of victim – or exorcism. The methods of exorcism include praying noise and taking some narcotic drugs, as well as soaking in water, whipping and starving sometimes, so as to make the body unfit for the devil to live. The final result is the death of many psychotic patients naturally in exorcism. Another method is terebration, which is the most ancient operation of neurosurgery known: an operator drilled a hole on the skull of one patient, and removed one bone to
expose encephalic tissue. In treating epilepsy (known as “a sacred disease” in those days), Hippocrates observed: “if the skull of one person is cut open, you will find it very wet and filled with sweat and unpleasant smells. The method makes you know that diseases instead of god hurt people”. Hippocrates firstly broke down the view of regarding psychiatry as the revenge of devil and god, and supported human treatment, which made a contribution to further cognition and treatment of mental diseases.
Figure4.Artist : Hieronymus Bosch (–1516)
Description : Extracting the stone of madness Medium : Oil on panel
Date : Between circa 1494 and circa 1516 Height : 47.5 cm (18.7 in). Width: 34.5 cm (13.6 in) Photographer : www.museodelprado.es
Figure5.Date : 3500 BCE Photographer : Rama
Description : Trepanated skull of a 50-year old woman,found in tumb 3 Corseaux-En Seyton.
Figure5.Date : 3500 BCE Photographer : Rama
Description : Trepanated skull of a 50-year old woman,found in tumb 3 Corseaux-En Seyton.
Figure6.Date : 3500 BCE Photographer : Rama
Description : Trepanated skull of a 50-year old woman,found in tumb 3 Corseaux-En Seyton.
In the Middle Ages filled with thick color of religion, going mad (usually meaning schizophrenia) was regarded to be controlled by supernatural force and psychotic patients were considered as the partners of Satan, having supernatural force to cause plague, natural diseases and hurt human body. However, in the Middle Ages, no matter natural or supernatural force, going mad was understood as a kind of disease. Those going mad were sent to hospital like other patients. During the Renaissance, cruel “treatment” for psychotic patients reached the peak in the judge and persecution of witch. Many people having weird behaviors were put to death by authorities in the name of witch. From the middle 15th century to the end of the 17th century, about 100,000 people were put to death as witches. Therefore, the period was known as the miserable period of psychotic patients by psychiatrists1 .
6. [Liang Baoyong. Abnormal psychology [M]. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2002, 12-60]
It can be seen that people in those days still had persistent enthusiasm about supernatural feature of mental diseases. Poor Law issued by Britain in the 17th century specified that the old, the epileptic, the blind and other unfortunate people would get the help of local government and church. Those homeless (including a big part of psychotic patients) were permitted to live in families of community. Doubtlessly, the measure indicated that people of those days regarded mental diseases as the product of nature like other diseases. It can be said that during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, mental diseases were considered as the product of nature, and the concept of regarding mental diseases as the result of supernatural force was still left over at the same time.
Figure8.Examination of a Witch by T. H. Matteson
Hinrichtung von drei Hexen am 4. November 1585 in Baden (Schweiz)
Source: Dietegen Guggenbühl: Hexen. In: Sandoz-Bulletin 24 (1971), S. 27-40, hier S. 38 http://www.agaltedrucke.zhbluzern.ch/recht.htm
Figure9.Folter von Frau und Tochter eines Fuhrmanns in Mellingen Hans Ueli (1577) Source: Dietegen Guggenbühl: Hexen. In: Sandoz-Bulletin 24 (1971), S. 27-40, hier S. 37 http://www.agaltedrucke.zhbluzern.ch/recht.htm
During the Middle Ages, people adopted religious method to view those going mad. They were took to holy place, to pray or to be watered with holy water, or to be starved or to be beat to torture the devil inside their bodies. As a result, various treatment methods appeared during the Middle Ages. The first method was perform “exorcism” for psychotics, such as, using cross, holy article or reading the Bible to drive away devil or placing patients on fire, and even opening the skull of patients to release devil etc1.
The second method was to drive psychotic patients out of local place and drive them to “Ship of Fools” and let them disappear in the endless sea or pay the passing merchant ships to take them away. The third was to regard some female psychotic patients as witches and then burn, hang or drown them. It can be seen that the cognition and treatment methods of the western European people toward mental diseases during the Middle Ages were not further developed based on views of Hippocrates etc., but to back up under influence of Christian thoughts.
7. [Yu Fenggao. History of psychiatric culture [M]. Changsha: Hunan Literature & Art Publishing House, 2006].
Figure10.Artist : Hieronymus Bosch (–1516) Title : The Ship of Fools
Medium : oil on oak panel Date : Circa 1494-1510
Photographer : http://www.hetnoordbrabantsmuseum. nl/english/press-jheronimus-bosch/persbeelden-eng/
With the rise of the Industrial Revolution and the capital class after the 17th century, great progress was made for science, impacting superstition greatly and medicine was greatly freed up from the theological restrictions during the Middle Ages. The 18th century is a turning point for psychiatry of the western Europe. From the 18th century, people started to regard psychiatry as a disease needing to be treated and psychotic patients as the members of the society. Progress of a certain degree was made for cognition of psychotic patients. They thought the psychotic patients just lost rationality and failed to control their own consciousness and behaviors by themselves. Therefore, in order to maintain social orders, they must be imprisoned. The confinement of mental hospital stunned people later. These confined mental hospitals became the well-known “madhouse” later and even in some countries, confinement organizations of psychotic patients attracted
tourists to view mania, ferocity and weird behaviors of psychotic patients for pleasure and entertainment. Obviously, though mental hospitals of those days still adhered to the principle of serving for psychotic patients, they had very negative effects on psychotic patients because of their bad environment. Inhuman treatment methods of madhouse caused dissatisfaction of some social figures about it in the late 18th century. Jean-Bapiste Pussin and Philippe Pinel etc. sponsored a “non-treatment movement” – moral therapy method. The psychiatrist Philippe Pinel thought psychiatry was a kind of brain disease caused by mental or social pressure, innate or psychological damage instead of being invasion of devil as considered in the traditional concept1
.Therefore, treatment of psychotic patients should be the same with the treatment of other diseases, based on benign interaction of doctors and patients and humanistic principle.
Figure11.Artist: Tony Robert-Fleury (1837–1911) Date : XIX wiek
Description : French psychiatrist Philippe Pinel (1745-1826)
Photographer : http://medarus.org/Medecins/MedecinsTextes/pinelp.html
Philippe Pinel
Figure12.Artist: Tony Robert-Fleury (1837–1911) Date : XIX wiek
Description : French psychiatrist Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) releasing lunatics from their chains at the Salpêtrière asylum in Paris in 1795. Photographer : http://medarus.org/Medecins/MedecinsTextes/pinelp.html
In the period from the end of the 17th century to the middle 18th century, a lot of psychotic patients experienced inhuman treatment while being imprisoned in madhouses. Patients were fastened to walls while wearing tights, handcuffs and shackles. Their room was small, short and closed and the air inside was stale. No matter in summer or in winter, patients slept on cold ground only. Their food was liquid, aiming for keeping them hungry. In treatment methods, guarders fed patients with laxative and vomitory and even let them bleed sometimes. What is much worse is that: in order to stabilize patients going mad, guarders adopted “water therapy method” and “rotating therapy method” – the former means to pour cold water of hundreds of barrels to the body of patients and the latter is to bind patients to chair which rotates several hundred times per minute to rotate them. If their diseases cannot be controlled, patients will be whipped by guarders. Bad living environment and inhuman treatment methods in madhouse did not bring any progress for recovery of psychotic patients. On the contrary, the inhuman treatment methods showed the cruelty of European people in those days toward the disadvantaged group. In the middle and late stages of the 18th century, the rise of moral therapy denied and challenged inhuman practice of madhouse in the early stage. The method obtained a huge
success. Records showed that in the first half of the 19th century, madhouses of Europe and America only provided moral therapy for psychotic patients and the situation of at least 70% hospitalized patients was improved or recovered. It was specified to release psychotic patients jailed in madhouse, arouse their freedom, prohibit to beat patients and use methods and tools like iron chain to restrict psychotic patients and require providing opportunities of entertainment and work for patients. In those days, the method was criticized by many psychiatrists. However, its therapy effects were significant and diseases of many psychotic patients jailed for years were improved. The movement was sponsored by Poussan and it was further developed into moral therapy of Poussan by Pinel. He thought that psychotic patients are just ordinary people losing their head because of their serious individual problems, and treating them like animals was inhuman and obstructed their recovery. He gave up the rough therapy methods in the past (such as bloodletting, enema and cupping therapy etc.), but to remove restrictions of patients and provide sunshine and fresh air and entertainment for patients. He also supported talk therapy for talking to and listening to patients and providing comfort and advice for patients 1.
9. [Liang Baoyong. Abnormal psychology [M].
Figure14.Title: 'Maniac chained to a wall' , from FOOL'S TOWER
Figure15.Examples of early nineteenth-century restraints from the Retreat Archives
Figure16.The tranquilizing chair, circa 1810. PHOTO BY FOTOSEARCH/GETTY IMAGES
Figure17.Description : Ursprüngliche Gebäude des York Retreat Artist: Gemälde von Carve
Date : circa 1796
Photographer : http://i237.photobucket.com/albums/ ff74/silverstealth_bucket/album%20name/retreat%20 feb%202009/RetreatOriginalBuildingssm.jpg
The reform of psychiatric organizations by reformers of European and American countries in the 19th century was the key factor for establishment of modern psychiatry. Their actions showed to world people that psychotic patients can be healed. If a correct therapy method is adopted, most of them can recover their health. Subsequently, various modern and humanistic methods of treating mental diseases appeared endlessly. Therefore, the great actions of those reformers in the 19th century paved the path for further development of psychiatry in the 20th century. After the Industrial Revolution of Europe, urbanization worsened living environment, and caused increasing social pressure and psychotic patients. For convenient control, these countries started to gather and manage psychotic patients uniformly and the concentration of a lot of clinical samples provided the basic condition for systemic study of mental diseases1 . Enlightenment Movement
10. [Roy Porter. Madness: a brief history[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002: 100 — 108 ]
occurred in Europe in the 18th century and people started to support rationality and cherish human nature. Influenced by such thought, the reform of treatment for psychotic patients was successively developed in countries of West Europe. At the end of the 18th century, Wiliam Tuke (1732-1822) established the famous York Retreat Madhouse in Britain, which took care of patients in humanistic ways. In 1793, Pinel started the movement of discharging shackles of patients at Salpetriere madhouse located in Pairs. At the same time, Pinel systemically
1.4.1 Cognition and background
of mental diseases
Figure18.Hospitales Psiquiátricos de Serbia y Kosovo
Figure18.Hospitales Psiquiátricos de Serbia y Kosovo
Serie fotográfica entre los años 1999 y 2002, en tres instituciones psiquiátricas de Serbia y Kosovo.
and classification was continued in the whole 19th century. Mental diseases listed in modern DSM-IV (four version of mental disease diagnosis and statistics handbook) were described mostly at the end of the 19th century, even though their names may not be consistent 2.
The period from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century is also a very important period in developing history of psychiatry. Based on clinical observation and etiology, Kraepelin (1856-1926) of Germany
11. [MICHAELH Stone Hemng the mind:a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ]. New
proposed the principles of clinical disease taxonomy, holding that mental diseases involve a bioprocess having objective rules, which can be divided into several categories. Each category has its own causes of diseases, distinctive bodily and mental symptoms, typical course of disease and pathological anatomy and regression relating to the nature of diseases. Using accumulative clinical data with a strict attitude of science, he firstly described dementia praccox as a disease unit the first time and thought that even though presentations of hebephrenia, catatonia and dementia praccox are different, they are sub-types of the same type of disease. Though mania is opposite to depression in surface, they are different presentations of the same disease substantially, known as manic-depressive psychosis. His thought promoted the development of psychiatric theories and laid the foundation for taxonomy of mental diseases, and made the theories of psychiatry enter the research of natural disease unit based on symptom grouping.
Figure19.Description : William Tuke. Etching by C. Callet Photographer : http://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/obf_ images/cc/18/26a16fa51120feda14c023d0b426.jpg
Figure20.Description : Emil Kraepelin Artist: Gemälde von Carve
Date : circa 1920
a. Johann Reil (1759-1813) stated psychotherapy systemically the first time. Therapy of psychotic patients with exorcism and saying prayers has a long history, wherein simple thought of psychotherapy is contained. Reil is one of the most important doctors in the aspect of psychiatry at the beginning of the 19th century in Germany. His Application of Psychotherapy in Mental Diseases systemically stated the principles and different methods of psychotherapy the first time. Psychotherapy of Reil was still rough and did not go beyond the scope of common knowledge. For example, he thought that the symptoms of patients can be improved by exposing quiet patients in noise or excited patients in dark and soundless environment, and sexual intercourse can be used to treat hysteria caused by frustration sense of sex. However, Reil clearly proposed that mental diseases are diseases of psychology and need to be treated with mental methods, which is a kind of progress doubtlessly. The experience-based therapy system established by him basically belongs to the category of rationalism and it tends to make general summary without considering individual difference. For example, he suggested exposing silent patients in noise without considering that some patients are silent because of fear of noise1 .
12. [ Alexander Franz. The history of psychiatry: an evaluation
b. Moral therapy of Pinel
Pinel thought that moral therapy is a comprehensive and humanistic therapy method and supported the thought of strictly observing, analyzing and studying behaviors and activities of each patient, using mild and reliable therapy method, stressed to respect and free up patients L81. Pinel proudly declared that he learnt methods of treating those going mad from each industry. According to statistics of Pinel, the recovery rate of mental diseases’ old therapy methods is lower than 20%, but 95% demoniac recovered their living ability through moral therapy, and found their free and independent personality back2 .
13. [PeterBankart. Talk therapy: a history of mental treatment in the east and the west [M]. Trs. By Li
Figure21.Description : Johann Christian Reil (1759–1813), German physician Artist: H. Dähling (drawer), F.W. Bollinger (engraver)
Date : Berlin, 1811
c. Psychotherapy of Johann Cristian Heinroth (1773-1843)
Psychotherapy supported by Heinroth had a overall trend and it regarded mental diseases as generally abnormal presentations of personality instead of external and partial abnormal presentations. At the same time, he realized the difference of personality between people and stressed distinct treatment of patients according to characteristics and symptoms of patients so that some patients need to be treated mildly and some need to be treated with a determined attitude3 . The
overall trend and individual orientation are an indicator of psychotherapy’s development.
14. [ MICHAEL. H. Stone. Healing the mind: a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ] .
Figure22.Description : Psychotherapy of Johann Cristian Heinroth (1773-1843)
Artist : Carl Lutherer (1807–1850) Date : Circa 1835
Source : Own work; Sammlung H.-P.Haack. Bearbeitet, aber keine inhaltlichen Änderungen.
d. Cognitive therapy
Cognitive therapy is a kind of psychotherapy for correcting and changing negative cognition of patients. Many psychiatrists of the 19th century realized its importance. For example, punishment proposed by Reil is implemented only when one patient makes a mistake, and realizes it and understands why to be punished. He wished that the patient could actively
participate in his own rehab. Therefore, he supported cognitive training, gymnastics and other activities dedicated to improving self respect4 . The views of Eduard Beneke
(1798-1854) about psychotherapy are consistent with modern psychoanalysis and cognitive methods: morbid thoughts are replaced by positive and sound thoughts5 . Heinroth stressed cognitive
correction. Von Feuchtersleben (1806-1849) regarded the process of psychotherapy as a reeducation process to help patients to solve problems caused by morbid personality6 .
Paul Charles Dubois (1848-1918) regarded that effective psychotherapy should make one patient believe that his feelings, thoughts and behaviors are irrational. His view was challenged by Joseph Dejerine (1849-1917), who thought that “psychotherapy totally depends on positive influence of one person on another”. A successful psychotherapy depends on personality of doctors, thus affecting cognitive process of patients7 . This
is a deeper level thought on cognitive therapy, fit with some views of modern talk therapy.
15. [ MICHAEL. H. Stone. Healing the mind: a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ] . New York : W .W . Norton & Co.,1997 74 ] 16. [ MICHAEL. H. Stone. Healing the mind: a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ] . New York : W .W . Norton & Co.,199774-75. ] 17. [ MICHAEL. H. Stone. Healing the mind: a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ] . New York : W .W . Norton & Co.,1997 74]
18. [ Alexander Franz. The history of psychiatry: an evaluation of psychiatric thought and practice from prehistoric times to the present [ M ] . New York: Harper & Row. 1966. 175] Figure23.Description : Friedrich Eduard Beneke
Artist : E. Uber Date : Before 1850
Figure24.Description :Charcot demonstrating hypnosis on a "hysterical"
Artist : André Brouillet (1857-1914) Date : 1887
e. Hypnotherapy
Hypnotherapy is a therapy to induce hypnosis to treat diseases or relieve symptoms. The Theoretical Foundation of Neural Hypnosis of Braid (1843) recorded the effective therapy details in conducting hypnotherapy and provided the suggestions of treating hysteric blindness, deafness, aphasia, paralysis, and spasm. He noticed that hypnotherapy was very effective for treating patients without having organ lesions8 . In 1887, Georges Gilles de la
Tourette (1857-1904) published his views on hypnotism, including characteristics of guide language and drug application of hypnosis etc9 . Charcot and Janet carried out a lot of
clinical practice and found that patients can recall some trauma experience in connection with symptoms under hypnosis. Sometimes, such release may lead to their rehab10 .
19. [ MICHAEL. H. Stone. Healing the mind: a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ] . New York : W .W . Norton & Co.,1997. 112 ] 20. [ MICHAEL. H. Stone. Healing the mind: a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ] . New York : W .W . Norton & Co.,1997. 100 ]
21. [ Alexander Franz. The history of psychiatry: an evaluation of psychiatric thought and practice from prehistoric times to the present [ M ] . New York: Harper & Row.1966.175 ]
Figure25.Description :Georges Gilles de la Tourette Artist : E. Pirou
Date : 16 November 2012 Source : This file was derived from Georges Gilles de la Tourette
Figure26.Description :Portrait of Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893)
Artist : NIH / U.S. National Library of Medicine Date : 19th century (published by Deschiens) Source : http://resource.nlm.nih.gov/101425121
FIgure27.Description : Statue of Aba de Faria next to old Secreteriate Artist : Original uploader was Vn nilesh at en.wikipedia
Date : 28 August 2006 (original upload date) Source : Transferred from en.wikipedia
f. Psychoanalysis
Influenced by treatment of a hysterical girl by Joseph Breuer (1841-1925), Freud considered his own clinical practice and his learning experience after Chareot to gradually form the thought on cause and treatment technique of hysteria, including roles of trauma experience, importance of subconscious motivation and technique of free association, which were presented in Studies in Hysteria coauthored with Breuer in 1895. The book was considered as the indicator of formal founding of psychoanalysis school. Later, Freud introduced the technique of dream interpretation through self analysis to develop the theory of psychoanalysis and reached a peak indicated by The Interpretation of Dreams 11.
22. [B.R.Hergenhahn. Introduction to the history of psychology [M]. Trs. By Guo Benyu. Shanghai: East China Normal University Press. 2004, 775-790, 773-774, 775-790.]
Figure28.Description : Sigmund Freud,6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939,as an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. founder of psychoanalysis, holding cigar.
Artist : Max Halberstadt (1882–1940) Date : 1922
Source : http://politiken.dk/kultur/boger/ faglitteratur_boger/ECE1851485/psykoanalysen-har-stadig-noget-at-sige-i-noejagtigt-betitlet-bog/
Drug therapy of mental diseases means to ask patients to take sedatives like scopolamine, camphor and opium etc. to make patients calm1.
Theodore Meynert (1833-1893), one of the most important histologist of Europe, thought that excitement is caused by insufficient blood supply of brain and inhibition is caused by too much blood supply of brain. Therefore, his therapy method was dedicated to changing situation of cerebral vessels with drugs 2.
Freud started experiment of stimulant cocaine for central nervous system in 1884, finding that it was capable of removing depression and improving symptoms of patients3 .
23.[LucyJaneKing.Abriefhistoyr of psychiatyr: Milennia Pastandpre— sent2[J].
AnnalsofdiniealpsychIatry,1999, 11(2):48. ]
24. [AlexanderFram.Thehistory of psychiatry: an evaluation of psychiatric thought and practice from prehistoric times to the present [ M ] . New York: Harper& Row,1966. 158 ] 25. [B.R.Hergenhahn. Introduction to the history of psychology [M]. Trs. By Guo Benyu. Shanghai: East China Normal University Press. 2004, 775-790, 773-774]
Figure29.
Description :Theodor Meynert (1833–1892) Artist : Ludwig Angerer (1827–1879) Date : before 1880
Source : scanned by uploader
Figure30. Description : Scopolamine 3D structure Artist : Giorgiogp2 , Edgar181
Figure30.
Description : Chemical structure of camphor Artist : Edgar181
Figure31. Description : This photo shows a seedhead of Opium Poppy Papaver somniferum with white latex.
a. Shock therapy
It includes rotary chair, surprise bath (i.e., ask patients to walk to the trap in the middle of bridge and fall into water suddenly, thereby relieving their symptoms by surprise) and soaking therapy, wishing to achieve therapy purpose through sudden and strong stimulation. In the 18th century, Hermann Boerhave (1668-1738) invented rotary chair, which was the first shock device in history of medicine1 . Joseph Cox (1763-1818) was the
first doctor of Britain to admit his work for psychotic patients, and he was famous for therapy using rotary chair. He thought that the terror created by rotary chair would drive the thought and emotion of patients causing psychiatric disorders outside their bodies2 .
26. [AlexanderFram.Thehistory of psychiatry: an evaluation of psychiatric thought and practice from prehistoric times to the present [ M ] . New York: Harper& Row,1966. 109] 27. [ MICHAEL. H. Stone. Healing the mind: a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ] . New York : W .W . Norton & Co.,1997. 105 ]
William Hallarna (1765-1825), the author of the first textbook on psychiatry in Ireland (1818), established a private madhouse and he also supported rotation therapy. The method of shock therapy used by Reil is to drop hot wax to palms of patients and even place mouse in glass bottle on skin of patients3 . Soaking patients into cold water
was also a commonly used shock therapy. Wilhelm Erb (1840-1921) invented the therapy of electric shock and used low voltage current and DC current to shock muscles of patients electrically. The method was once applied widely in Germany. Freud once used it as well, but it was found to be useless4 .
28. [ MICHAEL. H. Stone. Healing the mind: a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ] . New York : W .W . Norton & Co.,1997. 73-74]
29.[AlexanderFram.Thehistory of psychiatry: an evaluation of psychiatric thought and practice from prehistoric times to the present [ M ] . New York: Harper& Row.1966. 158]
Physiotherapy is to use the physiological reaction of human body to physical stimulation to achieve therapy purpose. Physiotherapy mainly includes the following types:
Figure32.Two versions of rotational chair
U.S. National Library of Medicine/Courtesy of Little Brown and Company
Figure33.Bath of Surprise
Figure34.Above: An example of hydrotherapy treatment from the era Photo credit: cournellpsychiatry.org
b. Hydrotherapy and loutrotherapy Wilhelm Griesinger thought that sedative bath can relieve excited condition 5. And
hydrotherapy was also considered to be capable of relieving pressure and mental symptoms.
c. Electric shock therapy
The current electric shock therapy grows out of it and its inspiration originated from electric shock of animals before killing them when psychiatrists visited slaughter house. Psychiatrists found that it was easier to induce spasm with electric shock than drug and failure of induction or repeated attack of spasm seldom occurred.
d. Prefrontal leucotomy
Prefrontal leucotomy is the most terrible somatotherapy method in early period. The operation needs to drill a hole on the skull and then use tools to cut off the connection between prefrontal lobe and nerve fiber of other encephalic region to achieve the effect of treating mental diseases.
30. [AlexanderFram.Thehistory of psychiatry: an evaluation of psychiatric thought and practice from prehistoric times to the present [ M ] . New York: Harper& Row 1966. 153] Figure35.
Description : Wilhelm Heinrich Erb Date : Circa 1900
a. Work therapy
Reil was one of the persons who proposed “work therapy” earliest and he wished to develop adaptability of patients1 . Work therapy
supported by Hallaran includes painting and sketch2 . Guilaunme Ferrus (1784-1861) became
the supervisor of Bicetre Hospital in 1826 and introduced work therapy into madhouse, asking patients having working ability to take care of animals and participate in work3 . Therapy
method of William A F Browne (180501885) was to provide effective work mainly and his descriptions on an ideal madhouse were featured by: good environment, each patient performing his own functions, and being tireless: “they are too busy to ignore or forget their pains. This prospect will appear in the future as we believe”4 . Griesinger also paid
attention to effectiveness of work therapy.
31. [ MICHAEL. H. Stone. Healing the mind: a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ] . New York : W .W . Norton & Co.,1997.74 ] 32. [ MICHAEL. H. Stone. Healing the mind: a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ] . New York : W .W . Norton & Co.,1997 .74-75] 33. [ MICHAEL. H. Stone. Healing the mind: a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ] . New York : W .W . Norton & Co.,1997.99. ]
1.4.2.4 Other supporting therapy of physiotherapy
Figure36.Description : Guillaume Ferrus, French psychiatrist. Lithograph from engraving.
Artist : François Séraphin Delpech (1778–1825) Source : http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B06760
b. Drama therapy
Reil thought the method can help patients to develop a better adaptation ability. For example, patients are involved in plots psychologically while watching drama and their self consciousness is stirred up. With the development of drama plots, feelings and intellectuals of patients are recovered and their self consciousness is recovered 5. The
method was adopted by many doctors later.
35. [AlexanderFram.Thehistory of psychiatry: an evaluation of psychiatric thought and practice from prehistoric times to the present [ M ] . New York: Harper& Row,1966.136 ]
c. Naturopathy
The thought of Hippocrates on natural self healing ability still affects psychiatric doctors in the 19th century. Reil supported people to take good food, sufficient sleeping and sunshine as therapy methods. Here, the shadow of modern support therapy is contained6 .
Heinroth supported naturopathy and stressed self therapy function of consciousness, but to object to excessive therapy 7.
36 [ MICHAEL. H. Stone. Healing the mind: a history of psychiatry from antiquity to the present [M ] . New York : W .W . Norton & Co.,1997. 73-74 ]
37. [AlexanderFram.Thehistory of psychiatry: an evaluation of psychiatric thought and practice from prehistoric times to the present [ M ] . New York: Harper& Row 1966.142 ] Figure37.Description : Main entrance of the Kremlin-Bicêtre hospital. Date: 1901
1.5 Contemporary mental illness
1.5.1 Mental Disorder
The definition and classification of mental disorders are key issues for researchers as well as service providers and those who may be diagnosed. For a mental state to classify as a disorder, it generally needs to cause
dysfunction1. Most international clinical
documents use the term mental "disorder", while "illness" is also common. It has been noted that using the term "mental" is not necessarily meant to imply separateness from brain or body. According to DSM-IV, a mental disorder is a psychological syndrome or pattern which is associated with distress , disability(impairment in one or more important areas of functioning), increased risk of death, or causes a significant loss of autonomy; however it excludes normal
38.[Stein, Dan J. (December 2013). "What is a mental disorder? A perspective from cognitive-affective science" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 58 (12): 656–62.]
responses such as grief from loss of a loved one, and also excludes deviant behavior for political, religious, or societal reasons not arising from a dysfunction in the individual23.
DSM-IV precedes the definition with caveats, stating that, as in the case with many medical terms, mental disorder "lacks a consistent operational definition that covers all situations", noting that different levels of abstraction can be used for medical definitions, including pathology, symptomology, deviance from a normal range, or etiology, and that the same is true for mental disorders, so that sometimes one type of definition is appropriate, and sometimes another, depending on the situation4.
39. [ Stein, Dan J; Phillips, K.A; Bolton, D; Fulford, K.W.M; Sadler, J.Z; Kendler, K.S (November 2010). "What is a Mental/Psychiatric Disorder? From DSM-IV to DSM-V". Psychological Medicine. London: Cambridge University Press. 40 (11): 1759–1765.]
1.5.2 Classifications
There are currently two widely established
systems that classify mental disorders:
ICD-10 Chapter V: Mental and behavioural
disorders, since 1949 part of the
International Classification of Diseases
produced by the WHO,the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) produced by the American
Psychiatric Association (APA) since 1952.
Both of these list categories of disorder and
provide standardized criteria for diagnosis.
They have deliberately converged their
codes in recent revisions so that the
manuals are often broadly comparable,
although significant differences remain.
Other classification schemes may
be used in non-western cultures, for
example the Chinese Classification of
Mental Disorders, and other manuals
may be used by those of alternative
theoretical persuasions, for example
thePsychodynamic Diagnostic Manual. In
general, mental disorders are classified
separately from neurological disorders,
learning disabilities or intellectual disability.
Unlike the DSM and ICD, some approaches
are not based on identifying distinct
categories of disorder using dichotomous
symptom profiles intended to separate
the abnormal from the normal. There
is significant scientific debate about the
relative merits of categorical versus such
non-categorical (or hybrid) schemes,
also known as continuum or dimensional
models. A spectrum approach may
incorporate elements of both.
In the scientific and academic literature on
the definition or classification of mental
disorder, one extreme argues that it is
entirely a matter of value judgements
(including of what is normal) while another
proposes that it is or could be entirely
objective and scientific (including by
reference to statistical norms)
1. Common
hybrid views argue that the concept of
mental disorder is objective even if only
a "fuzzy prototype" that can never be
precisely defined, or conversely that
the concept always involves a mixture
of scientific facts and subjective value
judgments
2. Although the diagnostic
categories are referred to as 'disorders',
they are presented as medical diseases,
but are not validated in the same way
as most medical diagnoses. Some
neurologists argue that classification will
only be reliable and valid when based
on neurobiological features rather than
clinical interview, while others suggest
that the differing ideological and practical
perspectives need to be better integrated
3.
The DSM and ICD approach remains
under attack both because of the implied
causality model
4and because some
researchers believe it better to aim at
underlying brain differences which can
precede symptoms by many years
5.
41. [Perring, C. (2005) Mental Illness Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
42. [Kato, Tadafumi (2011). "A renovation of psychiatry is needed". World Psychiatry. 10 (3): 198–9. ] 43.[Doward, Jamie (11 May 2013). "Medicine's big new battleground: does mental illness really exist?"] 44. [ational Institute of Mental Health. U.S. Department
1.5.3 Diagnosis
Psychiatrists seek to provide a medical diagnosis of individuals by an assessment of symptoms, signs and impairment associated with particular types of mental disorder. Other mental health professionals, such as clinical psychologists, may or may not apply the same diagnostic categories to their clinical formulation of a client's difficulties and circumstances1. The majority of
mental health problems are, at least initially, assessed and treated by family physicians (in the UK general practitioners) during consultations, who may refer a patient on for more specialist diagnosis in acute or chronic cases.
Routine diagnostic practice in mental health services typically involves an interview known as a mental status examination, where evaluations are made of appearance and behavior, self-reported symptoms, mental health history, and current life circumstances. The views of other professionals, relatives or other third parties may be taken into account. A physical
45. [Khan, MA; Akella, S (2009). "Cannabis-induced bipolar disorder with psychotic features: A case report". Psychiatry. 6 (12): 44–8]
examination to check for ill health or the effects of medications or other drugs may be conducted.Psychological testing is sometimes used via paper-and-pen or computerized questionnaires, which may include
algorithms based on ticking off standardized diagnostic criteria, and in rare specialist cases neuroimaging tests may be requested, but such methods are more commonly found in research studies than routine clinical practice2.
Time and budgetary constraints often limit practicing psychiatrists from conducting more thorough diagnostic evaluations3. It
has been found that most clinicians evaluate patients using an unstructured, open-ended approach, with limited training in evidence-based assessment methods, and that inaccurate diagnosis may be common in routine practice4.
In addition, comorbidity is very common in psychiatric diagnosis, where the same person meets the criteria for more than
46. [ Davies, T. (1997). "ABC of mental health: Mental health assessment". BMJ. 314 (7093): 1536–9. ]
47. [ Kashner, T. M.; Rush, AJ; Surís, A; Biggs, MM; Gajewski, VL; Hooker, DJ; Shoaf, T; Altshuler, KZ (2003). "Impact of Structured Clinical Interviews on Physicians' Practices in Community Mental Health Settings". Psychiatric Services. 54 (5): 712–8.] 48. [ Shear, M. Katherine; Greeno, C; Kang, J; Ludewig,
one disorder. On the other hand, a person may have several different difficulties only some of which meet the criteria for being diagnosed. There may be specific problems with accurate diagnosis in developing countries. More structured approaches are
being increasingly used to measure levels of mental illness.
HoNOS is the most widely used measure in English mental health services, being used by at least 61 trusts5.In HoNOS a score of
0–4 is given for each of 12 factors, based on functional living capacity6. Research has
been supportive of HoNOS7, although some
questions have been asked about whether it provides adequate coverage of the range and complexity of mental illness problems, and whether the fact that often only 3 of the 12 scales vary over time gives enough subtlety to accurately measure outcomes of treatment8.
49. ["What is HoNOS?". Royal College of Psychiatrists.] 50. ["Introduction to HoNOS". Royal College of Psychiatrists. 51.[ Pirkis, Jane E; Burgess, Philip M; Kirk, Pia K; Dodson, Sarity; Coombs, Tim J; Williamson, Michelle K (November 2005)] 52. [Audin, K. (June 2001). "Value of HoNOS in assessing patient change in NHS psychotherapy and psychological treatment services". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 178 (6): 561–6]
1.5.4 Psychotherapy
A major option for many mental disorders is psychotherapy. There are several main types.
1.5.1.1 Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a psychosocial intervention1 2 that is the most
widely used evidence-based practice for treating mental disorders3. Guided by empirical
research, CBT focuses on the development of personal coping strategies that target solving current problems and changing unhelpful patterns in cognitions (e.g. thoughts, beliefs,
53. [ Hollon SD, Beck AT (2013). "Chapter 11 Cognitive and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies". In MJ Lambert. Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 393–394. ] 54. [Beck JS (2011), Cognitive behavior therapy: Basics and beyond (2nd ed.), New York, NY: The Guilford Press, pp. 19–20] 55. [ield TA, Beeson ET, Jones LK (2015), "The New ABCs: A Practitioner's Guide to Neuroscience-Informed Cognitive-Behavior Therapy" (PDF), Journal
and attitudes), behaviors, andemotional regulation4.It was originally designed to treat
depression, and is now used for a number of mental health conditions5 6. Cognitive behavioral
therapy (CBT) is widely used and is based on modifying the patterns of thought and
56. [ Benjamin CL, Puleo CM, Settipani CA, et al. (2011), "History of cognitive-behavioral therapy in youth", Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 20 (2): 179–189.]
57. [ McKay D, Sookman D, Neziroglu F, Wilhelm S, Stein DJ, Kyrios M, Matthews K, Veale D (28 February 2015). "Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder.". Psychiatry Research. 225 (3): 236–246. ] 58. [ Zhu Z, Zhang L, Jiang J, et al. (December 2014). "Comparison of psychological placebo and waiting list control conditions in the assessment of cognitive behavioral therapy for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: a
meta-Figure39.
Description : The diagram depicts how emotions, thoughts, and behaviors all influence each other. The triangle in the middle represents CBT's tenet that all humans' core beliefs can be summed up in three categories: self, others, future. Artist : Urstadt)
1.5.1.2 Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques7 related to the study
of the unconscious mind8, which together
form a method of treatment for mental-health disorders. The discipline was established in the early 1890s by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud and stemmed partly from the clinical work of Josef Breuer and others. Psychoanalysis addressing underlying psychic conflicts and defenses, has been a dominant school of psychotherapy and is still in use.
59. [Merton M. Gill, American Mental Health Foundation: "What is psychoanalysis? Of course, one is supposed to answer that it is many things — a theory, a research method, a therapy, a body of knowledge. In what might be considered an unfortunately abbreviated description, Freud said that anyone who recognizes transference and resistance is a psychoanalyst, even if he comes to conclusions other than his own. ... I prefer to think of the analytic situation more broadly, as one in which someone seeking help tries to speak as freely as he can to someone who listens as carefully as he can with the aim of articulating what is going on between them and why. David Rapaport (1967a) once defined the analytic situation as carrying the method of interpersonal relationship to its last consequences." Gill, Merton M. "Psychoanalysis, Part 1: Proposals for the Future", American Mental Health Foundation, archived 10 June 2009] 60. [Jane Milton, Caroline Polmear, Julia Fabricius. A
Figure41.Description : International Psychoanalytic Congress, Weimar. Photograph, 1911.
Date : 21 September 1911 Artist : Anonymous
Source : Prints & Photographs Division.
Figure40.Description : SIGMUND FREUD'S SOFA Date : 5 December 2004
Artist : ROBERT HUFFSTUTTER
Source : https://www.flickr.com/photos/ huffstutterrobertl/6888951554/in/ photolist-buKFhN-bHF4bn-bJi1KD
1.5.5 Medication
A major option for many mental disorders is psychiatric medication and there are several main groups.
Antidepressants are used for the treatment ofclinical depression, as well as often for anxiety and a range of other disorders. Anxiolytics (including sedatives) are used for anxiety disorders and related problems such as insomnia. Mood stabilizers are used primarily in bipolar disorder. Antipsychotics are used for psychotic disorders, notably for positive symptoms in schizophrenia, and also increasingly for a range of other disorders. Stimulants are commonly used, notably for ADHD. Despite the different conventional names of the drug groups, there may be considerable overlap in the disorders for which they are actually indicated, and there may also be off-label use of medications. There can be problems with adverse effects of medication and adherence to them, and there is also criticism of pharmaceutical marketing and professional conflicts of interest. 1.5.1.3 Systemic therapy
In psychotherapy, systemic therapy seeks to address people not only on the individual level, as had been the focus of earlier forms of therapy, but also as people in relationships, dealing with the interactions of groups and their interactional patterns and dynamics.
1.5.1.4 Family therapy
Family therapy, also referred to as couple and family therapy, marriage and family therapy, family systems therapy, and family counseling, is a branch of psychotherapy that works with families and couples in intimate relationships to nurture change and development. It tends to view change in terms of the systems of interaction between family members. It emphasizes family relationships as an important factor in psychological health. Some psychotherapies are based on a humanistic approach. There are a number of specific therapies used for particular disorders, which may be offshoots or hybrids of the above types. Mental health professionals often employ an eclectic or integrative approach. Much may depend on the therapeutic relationship, and there may be problems with trust, confidentiality and engagement.
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), formerly known as electroshock therapy, and often referred to as shock treatment, is a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in patients to provide relief from mental disorders1.
The ECT procedure was first conducted in 19382
and is the only currently used form of shock therapy in psychiatry. ECT is often used with informed consent3 as a last line of intervention
for major depressive disorder, mania, and catatonia4.ECT machines have been placed in
the Class III category (high risk) by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) since 19765.
61.[Rudorfer, MV, Henry, ME, Sackeim, HA (2003). "Electroconvulsive therapy". In A Tasman, J Kay, JA Lieberman (eds) Psychiatry, Second Edition. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 1865–1901.] 62. [Rudorfer, M. V., Henry, M. E., & Sackheim, H. A. (1997). Electroconvulsive therapy. In A. Tasman, J. & J. A Lieberman (Eds.), Psychiatry (1535-1556)] 63. [Beloucif S (2013). "Informed consent for special procedures: electroconvulsive therapy and psychosurgery". Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 26: 182–5. ] 64. [FDA. FDA Executive Summary. Prepared for the January 27–28, 2011 meeting of the Neurological Devices Panel Meeting to Discuss the Classification of Electroconvulsive Therapy Devices (ECT). Quote, p38: "Three major practice guidelines have been published on ECT. These guidelines include: APA Task Force on ECT (2001); Third report of the Royal College of Psychiatrists’ Special Committee on ECT (2004); National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE 2003; NICE 2009). There is significant agreement between the three sets of recommendations."] 65. [http://www.fda.gov/downloads/
Figure42.Description :Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) apparatus previously used at mental patients at the Eg Asyl mental hospital, in Kristiansand, Norway. The apparatus was in use in the 1970s and 1980s. Exhibit at the Technical Museum of Norway, Oslo. Artist : Bjoertvedt
Date : 8 December 2013
NTM Eg Asyl ECT apparatus
Figure43.Description : Electroconvulsive therapy machine on display at Glenside Museum. Artist : Rodw
b. Music therapy
Music therapy is the use of interventions to accomplish individual goals within a therapeutic relationship by a professional who has completed an approved music therapy program6.Music therapy is an allied health
profession and one of the expressive therapies, consisting of a process in which a music therapist uses music and all of its facets— physical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and spiritual—to help clients improve their physical and mental health. Music therapists primarily help clients improve their health in several domains, such as cognitive functioning, motor skills, emotional development, social skills, and quality of life, by using music experiences such as free improvisation, singing, and listening to, discussing, and moving to music to achieve treatment goals. It has a wide qualitative and quantitative research literature base and incorporates clinicaltherapy, psychotherapy, biomusicology, musical acoustics, music theory, psychoacoustics, embodied music cognition, aesthetics of music, sensory integration, and comparative musicology. Referrals to music therapy services may be made by other health care professionals such as physicians, psychologists, physical therapists, and occupational therapists. Clients can also choose to pursue music therapy services without a referral (i.e., self-referral).
66. American Music Therapy Association, 2013.
Power of Music
Figure44.Description : A letter written by the artist to William Walters dated July 20, 1860 illuminates the subject of this painting. It shows a brother and sister resting before an old tomb. The brother is attempting to comfort his sibling by playing the violin, and she has fallen into a deep sleep, "oblivious of all grief, mental and physical." This composition exists in at least one other version, now preserved at the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg. A closely related reduced replica was given to the Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique by a descendant of the artist. The melancholic subject's popularity is attested by its reproduction on a porcelain plaque manufactured by the Royal Porcelain Factory, Berlin. Artist : Louis Gallait (1810–1887) Date : 1852
c. Art therapy
Art therapy (also known as arts therapy) is a creative method of expression used as atherapeutic technique. Art therapy originated in the fields of art and psychotherapy and may vary in definition. Art therapy may focus on the creative art-making process itself, as therapy, or on the analysis of expression gained through an exchange of patient and therapist interaction. The psychoanalytic approach was one of the earliest forms of art psychotherapy. This approach employs thetransference process
between the therapist and the client who makes art. The therapist interprets the client's symbolic self-expression as communicated in the art and elicits interpretations from the client7. Analysis
of transference is no longer always a component. Current art therapy includes a vast number of other approaches such as:
person-centered,cognitive, behavior, Gestalt, narrative, Adlerian, family (systems) and more. The tenets of art therapy involve humanism, creativity, reconciling emotional conflicts, fostering self-awareness, and personal growth8.
67. [Edwards, D. (2004). Art therapy. London: Sage Publications, p.1]
Fortier DAKAR art therapy
Figure46.Description : Art therapist Felicity Kodjo watches over a patient during the art therapy workshop.machine on display at Glenside Museum. Artist : Photo: VOA - A. Fortier
Date : December 2011
Source : VOA, http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/Art-Therapy-Helps-Mentally-Ill-Patients-in-Dakar-136400123.html
d. Drama therapy
Drama therapy (written dramatherapy in the UK) is the use of theatre techniques to facilitate personal growth and promote mental health9.
Dramatherapy is used in a wide variety of settings, includinghospitals, schools, mental health centers, prisons, and businesses. Drama therapy, as a form of 'expressive therapy' (also known as creative arts therapies')10, exists in
many forms and can be applicable to individuals, couples, families, and various groups11.
69. [ Loretta Gallo-Lopez, Lawrence C. C. Rubin -Play-Based Interventions for Children and Adolescents on the ... 2012- Page 100 "An overview of drama therapy is provided next, along with support for the use of drama therapy with children with ASd.]
70. [ Jeffrey A. Kottler, PH., David S. Shepard Introduction to Counseling: Voices from the Field - 2010 Page 179 "Frequently the use of expressive therapy is not theoretically isolated but occurs as an adjunct to other theoretical modalities.]
71. [ Malchiodi, Cathy A. (2003), Expressive Therapies , New York: Guilford, ISBN ]
Figure47.http://www.nadta.org/
e. Other
Lifestyle adjustments and supportive measures are often used, including peer support, self-help groups for mental health and supported housing or supported employment (including social firms). Some advocate dietary supplements.Reasonable accommodations (adjustments and supports) might be put in place to help an individual cope and succeed in environments despite potentialdisability related to mental health problems. This could include an emotional support animal or specifically trained psychiatric service dog. Figure47.http://www.nadta.org/
80 81
1.6 Mental illness pandemic
The more developed a society is, the greater the pressure it brings, resulting in the growing population suffered from mental illnesses. Although mild afflictions, such as insomnia,emo- tional tension, etc., incur no serious impacts on people’s life, they still need relieving . And there are other serious illnesses affecting people’s life and social relations. But due to a lack of understanding and a mentality of fear, these illnesses are not treated timely, affecting rehabilitation. So here are some of the popular and common mental illnesses.
