Introduction
Wendy McPhee
Recently I walked into my kitchen to discover that the dishwashing area was again swarming with ants. There was only one thing to do—move into attack mode and deal with them. Why was it that these small “warriors” always appeared when I least expected them, and why did I always react with an angry and aggressive attitude? I decided that I should try a different approach to these pesky little warriors. “Give a little,” I said to myself. “Why not try and see if we can live in the same space for the short amount of time that they are present?”
So I placed a small amount of honey on the windowsill—a place where they would be happy to feed and a spot that did not interfere with the day-to-day workings of a kitchen. The ants and I cohabitated for 24 hours, and then they disappeared. I felt much better; I was happy not to have had to resort to ant poison, and I must admit, there were a couple of occasions when I found that I was gazing at their movements and feeling quite fascinated. I’m sure that the ants themselves were also much happier—
able to feed on the honey and then move back outside. It struck me that this event was a simple metaphor for conflict management. A little give and take on my behalf had led to a win-win situation with a good outcome for all.
The following statement was made at a recent world peace forum.
Entering deep dialogue, we will meet up with polarities that cause conflict and turbulence. We have to be willing to accept that. We cannot be afraid of chaos, but see it as a necessary and fertile part of the process. Here are some polarities: deep dialogue vs. forced results; open agenda vs.
controlled agenda; process oriented vs. product oriented; formless vs. form; anarchy vs. authority;
respectful listening vs. language barriers; presence in the moment vs. time pressure; trust vs. ego.
Brought together we enter in trust. Each person is a facilitator. This works best when an urgent problem is facing us. It keeps the attention focused on one reality. It helps to move our hearts and minds toward a common objective. There is no choice necessary between process and product when deep dialogue is most important. When we can reach the magic of genuine communion in deep mutual respect, wonderful products can come out.1
The most difficult aspect of conflict is that it is very often a subjective perception (some people would not have been angered by ants in their kitchen). Different styles of personal and organizational communication, management, and authority are all part of the many facets of our personality. Most of us have had the experience of retro- spectively wishing that we had responded in a different way from what we did in a moment of confusion, disappointment, and/or anger. We come to understand that in encountering new situations and personality styles, especially ones that we have not yet experienced in our workplace, our reactions can be unknown, hence, the feeling that we could have handled the situation in a different manner.
LTF24 10/11/2004 9:14 AM Page 224
How is it that participating parties can express conflict in such an opposing and dif- fering manner? Both parties often feel that the other is to blame and are left with a feeling of dissatisfaction, anger, frustration, or discontent. Often we have the innate knowledge that the first step of conflict resolution needs to begin with an apology. It is at this stage that either the downward spiral of conflict can begin or the building blocks of resolution can be constructed.
While effective conflict management is a challenge within any organizational setting, the healthcare setting presents a complex set of issues because of the varied and unique relationships among the many different members of healthcare teams. Perceptual gaps, incompatibilities in an individual’s and/or an organization’s conceptualization of the same problem can lead to conflict. Conflict has been defined by Hocker2as “an expressed struggle between at least two parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference from the other party in achieving their goals.”
The causes of conflict can be many, including resource sharing, interdependent tasks, different or shifting goals, different perceptions and values, personality styles, poor communication, cultural differences, and issues of politics. Often currents of active power play underpin these causes. Newer methods of electronic communication such as e-mail, for example, also introduce another set of complex variations with regard to communication and conflict. Many of us have had the experience of misinterpreting the content of an e-mail. Communication is also an example of a behavior that can be affected by the level of power a person holds within an organization that can be even further exacerbated by using newer forms of electronic dialog.
The evolving information systems of today are reshaping organizations. Traditional boundaries are becoming less defined as sophisticated networks move across depart- ments, divisions, geographical locations, and levels within the organization itself.
Organizations need to reconsider how this change will affect on the organization’s envi- ronment as a whole. With the implementation of new information technologies, future organizations may perhaps consider project, conflict, and change management compo- nents of their core business.
Conflict can be healthy and desirable in order to retain creativity and to keep groups moving forward. This is an easy statement to make, but in reality it is a very difficult task to manage. Often conflict between individuals, and within and between groups, can become destructive and personal. The traditional view of conflict is that it is some- thing to avoid at all costs, a phenomenon that could have disastrous consequences for both the organization and the people involved. It is also possible to view conflict as a positive encounter—with consequences that lead to clarity, unity, constructive out- comes, and satisfaction for both the individuals involved and the organization as a whole.
There are many conflict resolution models that can be applied to conflict manage- ment. The following is a short description indicating how one might identify the begin- nings of a developing conflict and what models of resolution one might consider for achieving a desired outcome.
Recognition of Conflict
The following suggestions are the first steps to consider when one first determines that something is amiss. These five points consider the “what, who, and why” components of the situation that requires attention. They are a mix of many theories but are trig- gers that I believe lay the foundation on which to build.
Introduction 225 LTF24 10/11/2004 9:14 AM Page 225
1. Detect conflict early. Often a situation can be “nipped in the bud” before it escalates.
2. Determine whether the situation involves healthy or unhealthy conflict. Do you need to deal with the conflict? Will this conflict lead to a positive or a negative outcome?
3. Try to understand why the conflict has presented itself. Reflect on recent meetings and behavior and remember to consider the issues from both sides.
4. Determine the cause of conflict from the symptoms. Are you dealing at the personal or the organizational level?
5. Identify personal approaches to conflict management and negotiation. Reflect on the best way that these can be managed. Do you need to seek further advice?
Methods of Conflict Resolution
In the field of organizational and interpersonal conflict, there are many models of conflict resolution from which to choose. The models presented here are only an introduction.
• Denial/avoidance. Denial and avoidance are different things. Denial means to metaphorically “put one’s head in the sand” and not acknowledge that there is a problem at all. The circumstances are impossible to manage if one is in denial–
despite recognizing that a problem exists. On the other hand, avoidance means that one has made a conscious decision not to do anything. Sometimes there is no advan- tage to addressing a conflict because there is nothing to be gained.
• Accommodation or “giving in.” Accommodation of a situation could be considered the best path to choose when one might jeopardize a long-term relationship or when the other person involved holds substantially more power or control. Accommoda- tion is not effective if one believes that the issues at hand are critically important, if one feels resentment by not doing anything, or when one needs to establish a sense of authority.
• Compromise or “finding a middle ground.” Often, attempting to arrive at a compro- mise aims to arrive at a solution that is acceptable to both parties. Unfortunately, in reality this solution often does not completely satisfy both parties, and this should be taken into consideration if one decides to pursue this option. Finding a middle ground can also be considered as a first step in conflict management while a more robust solution is being explored.
• Imposing or using power. The main components of this method are the use of power and influence. Beware, as this is an extremely high-risk strategy. Relationships may be permanently damaged, and one may be forced to accept a win-lose situation. If the stakes are very high, a decision needs to be made or a disaster will result, and if you are absolutely sure that you are correct, then this may be a viable option.
• Collaboration or working together. The advantages of this method are clear. Working together to resolve conflict is almost always the best choice. While this method can require a lot of time and effort, it is most likely to lead to in-depth and sincere dis- cussion, collaboration, teamwork, and analysis, and ultimately achieve a win-win solution.
Once one has recognized the conflict, determined whether it lies at an organizational or a personal level, and once one has decided which model of resolution to use, there 226 Section VI. Organizational and Interpersonal Conflict
LTF24 10/11/2004 9:14 AM Page 226
are a few final recommendations that may be helpful for successfully managing con- flict. Raymond Zueschner,3suggests the following:
• Conflict can be constructive. Recognize that conflict can strengthen your relationships.
• Be prepared. Plan how you will communicate about conflict to create a supportive climate.
• Be involved. Do not withdraw from the conflict or avoid conflict situations.
• Withhold quick retorts. Be careful about what you say and how you say it.
• Review. Summarize what you have discussed and make plans to continue the dis- cussion if time permits immediate resolution.
Remember that conflict at any level is very often subjective and that one doesn’t have to address conflict alone.
Personal Accounts
College-level health informatics students wrote the personal accounts in this section.
All of them are very private experiences; therefore, some of the authors have chosen to be published anonymously. Consider the following questions when reading these accounts.
• Can you identify any of the five possible steps that lead you to recognize that a con- flict situation is arising?
• Can any of the methods of resolution described above be applied to resolve the situation?
And Last
On a final note, the ants are back, but this time those little warriors are marching around upstairs! What is it with these guys? I thought that my compromise was working well!
It just goes to show how situations can change. I’ll have the opportunity to reflect on which method of resolution I will adopt this time. Hopefully I’ll choose the right one, and this battle can be resolved. But realistically, I’m just too tired to be rational about this. I think I’ll just go to bed and make a decision in the morning!
References
1. World Summit on Peace and Time, Conflict Resolutions and Other Tools, Costa Rica, 1999.
2. Hocker JL, Wilmot WW. Interpersonal Conflict. Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown, 1991.
3. Zueschner R. Communicating Today. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1997.
Introduction 227 LTF24 10/11/2004 9:14 AM Page 227
