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Exp lai n in g So ci al E xcl u si o n in E lit e Pr o fes si o n al S er v ice F ir m s: F ro m O cc u p ati o n al F ie ld s to Fi e lds of P o w e r Louis e A shle y, U niv er sit y o f Lon don an d La ura Em ps on, C as s B us in es s Sc ho ol Th e e lit e p ro fe s s io n s in th e U K a re h ig h ly s o c ia lly e x c lu s iv e a n d o v e r th e p a s t th irt y y e a rs h a v e b e c o me mo re s o . P ro c e s s e s o f s o c ia l e x c lu s io n wi th in o c c u p at ions c ont ribut e tow ards w ider s o c ial in eq uali ties and a s s uc h it is im port a nt that is s u es o f s trat if ica tio n a re u n d e rst o o d a n d a d d re sse d . T h e cu rr e n t p a per co n tr ib u te s to r e se a rch o n t h is t o p ic. B a se d o n a c ro s s -s ec tor al q u al it at iv e a n al y s is o f s ix f ir m s in th e le g al , ac c ount in g, c o ns ul ting an d inv es tm e nt b ank in g s ec tors , w e as k : w h y do e lit e prof es s iona l s erv ic e fi rm s e x c lu d e o n t h e b a s is o f s o c ia l b a c k g ro u n d a n d w h a t a re t h e i m p lic a tio n s f o r th e r e p ro d u c tio n o f prof es s ional el ite s o n the o ne hand an d of inequa lity o n th e o th e r? L ite ra tu re e x a m in in g th is to p ic ty pi c a lly st a rts fr o m n e o -W e b e ria n co n ce p tu a lisa tio n s o f t h e ‘p ro fe s s io n a l p ro jec t’, w ith m o re r ec e n t an a ly s e s a ls o us ing B o urdieus ia n fram ew ork to theo ris e a tran s it ion fr om form al (c re dent ia ls ) to inf orm a l (c ul tural) me c h a n is ms o f c lo s u re . T h o u g h th e s e s tu d ie s o ffe r u se fu l i n s ig h ts , t h e y h a v e te n d e d to fo c u s o n a s in g le se ct o r, u su a lly th e la w , w h ich is ty p ica lly a p p ro a c hed as thou gh it w e re a rel at iv ely c o h erent an d aut on om ous s o c ial s pac e or ‘f ield. ’ In the c urr e nt st u d y , u s in g t h e w o rk o f B o u rd ie u , w e t h e o rise t h e dev el o pm ent o f a di s c ret e a nd c ros s -c ut ting ‘field of p o w e r’, c o m p ris e d o f el it e p ro fe s s io n al s e rv ic e fi rm s . We s u g g e s t t h a t g ra d u a te re c ru itm e n t a n d s e le c tio n pr a c tic es w it hin thi s ‘f iel d of p ow er’ tend to fo c u s o n a lo c al (nat ional) n ot gl obal labour m a rk e t and are h ig h ly s im ila r n o m a tte r w h a t th e s e c to r. T h es e si m ila rit ie s h a ve co n tr ib u te d t o w a rd s th e r e -s tra tifi c a tio n o f th e p ro fe s s io n s o n t h e b a s is o f s o c ia l cl a ss and t o an ill us io n of s c arc ity in hum an res o urc es , of ten c ap tu red a s th e ‘w a r for ta len t.’ W e d is c u s s th e im pli c tions for the reprodu c tion of p ro fes s ion a l el it es and ineq u a lit y . Wo m e n i n t h e B o a rd ro o m : th e c a s e o f b la c k w o m e n n a v ig a tin g b o u n d a rie s in c o rp o ra te S o u th Af ric a Xo lani N ga zim bi, H um an Sc ien ces R es earc h C ounc il St at is tic s s how t hat t h e c o rporat e w orl d, in part ic ul ar to p m anag em ent , is dom inat ed by m ales . S out h Af ri c a ’s c a s e is e v en m ore pe c ul iar, g iv en it s hi s tory of rac ial ineq u a lit y w he re boardro om s h av e be e n dom inat ed b y w hit e m ales . T h e num ber of b lac k A fri ca n s in to p m a n a g e m e n t i s s lo w ly in c re a s in g d u e to dem oc ra tic r e form and trans form at ion p oli c ie s prom o ti n g c h a n g e a n d r e m o v in g le g is la ti v e b a rr ie rs s in c e th e d e m is e o f a p a rth e id . T h e y, h o w e v e r, c o n ti n u e to r e m a in s k e w e d t o w a rd s m a le s . W h ile l e g is la tio n a n d polic ies target ing e m plo y m e nt eq uit y te nd to foc u s on q u o ta s , t h e ex p e rien c e s o f i n d iv id u a ls p ro tec ted b y th e s e p o lic ie s t e n d s to g o u n c h e c k e d . D ra w in g fr o m th e c a re e r n a rr a tiv e s o f s e n io r b la c k m a n a g e rs in mu ltin a tio n a l e n te rp ris e s , th is p a p e r e n g a g e s w ith th e e x p e rie n c e s o f b la c k w o m e n in S o u th A fr ic a n ent erpri s es , a nd how t h ey nav ig at e the s oc ial and ins tit u tiona l boundar ies in w hat es s e nt ial ly rem ains a wh ite ma le -d o m in a te d s p a c e . B y a llo wi n g th e ir v o ic es to e m e rg e, th is p ap e r s h o w s ho w th e y e x pe rie nc e bou n daries bet w ee n the ir ide nt it ies as bl ac k A fric a n w om e n from bac k g ro unds t hat are inf lue nc ed, t o va ry in g d e g re e s, b y tr a d itio n a l A fr ica n cu ltu re a n d t h e ir id e n tit ie s a s s e n io r e x e c u tiv e s in a w o rk w o rld that th e y e x p e rie n c e a s la rg e ly w e s te rn a n d m a le d o m in a ted. E v en in the ab s enc e of legis lat ed dis c rim in at io n, co rp o ra te cu ltu re is b u ilt u p o n b o u n d a rie s th a t a re o fte n e x p e rie n c e d a s i m p e rm e a b le a n d m a in ta in l o n g st a n d in g p a tte rn s o f e xcl u s io n . G iv e n th e fo c u s o f po lic y p la n ni n g on rac ial a n d g end er trans form at ion i n th e w o rk p la c e , th is p a p e r c o n tr ib u te s g re a te r u n d e rst a n d in g o f th e n e e d to fa ci lit a te th e su cce s s fu l tr a n s iti o n o f w o m e n p ro fe s s io n a ls i n th e s e tr a n s fo rmi n g s p a c e s . La de m a n d a d e in ge n ie ros y s u s pe rs pe c tiv a s fut u ra s Ma rta P an aia , Un iv er sid ad d e B ue no s A ire s Es ta úl tim a déc a da los e s pec ial is tas en Ed uc ac ión S uperio r, los di rige nt e s c on c argo en las ins tit u c io ne s de en s eñ anz a y los po lí tic os han d em os tr a do un a fue rt e preoc up ac ió n p or el c urs o de las ingen ierí a s en la A rg en tina, la lo n g it ud de s us es tudi os , la b a ja ta s a d e g ra d u a c ió n , la d e m a n d a c re c ie n te d e e s ta es p ec ialidad liga d a al de s arroll o y a la indus tria, l a fu e rte d e s e rc ió n e n e s ta s c a rr e ra s y l a n e c e s id ad d e es p ec ializ ac ion es c a da v ez m ás c o m pl ej as ligadas a lo s ú lt im o s d e s ar ro llos t e c n o lóg ic o s , ex p lic a n es a preoc up ac ión.3 Si n e m barg o , la v is ión y las as pi ra c io nes de es tos gr ad ua do s en ingen ierí a , c o n e s fu erz os m em ora bl es para term ina r s u c a rrera, g rande s a s pi ra c io n es , p er o fue rtes lim it ac ione s en el m erc ad o de tr a bajo par a al c an z a r bu en os s a lario s , pa ra lle v ar a del a nt e un e mp re n d im ie n to o p a ra e je rc e r lo s c o n o c im ie n to s má s cr e a tiv o s d e su s e sp e ci a lid a d e s, n o se si e n te n ta n se g u ro s d e su n e ce si d a d y m u c h o s d e e llo s fr u s tr a d o s por la s lim itac io n es d e la dem anda bus c a n m ejores h or iz o n te s p a ra re a liz ar s u s c a rr e ra s . A es to s e agreg a que ex is ten en el pa ís m ás de 11 6 tí tu lo s d e g ra d o d ife re n te s p a ra la s In g e n ie ría s ,d is tr ib u id o s e n 8 0 in s ti tu c io n e s p ú b lic as y 36 p riv ada s . Es ta v ar ieda d de tít ulo s inc luy e ma tic e s c o m o e l d e in g e n ie ro v ia l e in g e n ie ro e n v ías de c om un ic ac ión , pero que no inc lu y e tr a ns port e en fo rm a e s p e c ífi c a ; t a m b ié n e s lla m a ti v o e l c a s o d e las in gen ierí a s e n la in dus tr ia d e la a lim ent a c ió n, en las in d us trias agr íc olas y al im ent ari as y las inge n ierí as en tec nol ogí a de ali m e nt os . O tra v a riedad es la in g enierí a en m áqu inas na v ale s y en el ec tr ó nic a na va l o la in g e n ie ría e n si st e m a s d e in fo rm a ci ó n ; e n so ftw a re y e n co m p u ta ci ó n ; t a m b ié n h a y in g e n ie ría s ca s i e n e xt in c ió n c o m o la in g e n ie ría te xt il o c a m p o s nue v os y m u y es p ec ífi c os c om o la in gen ierí a b iom édi ca , la b io te c n o lo g ía o la in g e n ie ría d e la lu z ( q u e in c luy e los proc e s os lás e r) o la ingenierí a d e proc es os qu e inc o rp ora n nuev os e im port ant es co n o ci m ie n to s a la in d u s tr ia , a l m e d io a m b ie n te y a l t e rr ito rio . L a a p e rtu ra d e e s to s c a m p o s , p o r a h o ra n o ha m odi fic a d o las pref erenc ias de lo s g ra duado s q ue s ig u e n e lig ie n d o la s c a rr e ra s m á s tr a d ic io n a le s . De s p u é s d e e s tu d ia r d u ra n te má s d e d ie z a ñ o s la s tr ay e c to ri a s d e lo s in g e ni e ro s e n d is tin ta s r e g io n e s del paí s , n os parec e im port ant e hac e r un bala nc e de e s o s e s tu d io s y a n a liz a r la p o s ib ilid a d d e n u e v o s ca m in o s p a ra lo s e s tu d io s d e la in g e n ie ría e n la A rgen tina, v er c uá les s on s us re perc us ione s en el ME RC O S U R y c ó mo h a n in c id id o lo s p ro c e s o s d e e v a lu a ci ó n d e e sa s ca rr e ra s . P a ra e llo p re se n ta re m o s cu a tr o p u n to s q u e c o n si d e ra m o s si g n ific a tivo s, e l ú lt im o a m o do d e c o n c lu s ió n y p e rs p e c tiv a fu tu ra. In te rn a tio n a liz a tio n o f k n o w le d g e s ta n d a rd s a n d it s i m p a c t o n t h e p ro fe s s io n a l p ro je c t: t h e c a s e of t h e IF R S a d o p tio n b y C e rt ifi e d P ubl ic A c c o u n ta n ts in th e P h ili p p in e s Erw in F . R afae l, U ni vers ity of the Ph ilip pine s Ov e r th e p a s t tw o d e c a d e s , th e P h ilip p in e a c c o u n tin g p ro fes s ion h a s tr a n s itio ne d fro m u s in g lo c a lly -dev el o pe d ac c o unt ing s tan dards to ful ly adopt ing th e In te rn a tio n a l F ina n c ia l R e p o rti ng S ta n d ar ds ( IF R S ) as the Ph ilip p ines ’ c odi fie d G ene ra lly A c c ep ted A c c ou nt ing P rinc ipl e s ( G AA P). Pos t-adop tion res ea rc h es hav e s ho w n a lo w lev el of c om pl ia n c e w ith IF R S b y P hi lip p in e c o m p a n ie s , m a k ing t he t e rm “ g e ne ra lly ac c e pt ed” an ox y m oron , a s t he s tan dards are inc reas in g ly a p p e a rin g to b e d iv or c ed f ro m t h e n or m s o f lo c al ac c ount in g prac tic e. T he pa per ex pl ains w h y the Philipp ine ac c o unt ing p ro fes s ion c o nt inuo us ly u s es kn o w le d g e st a n d a rd s d e ve lo p e d b y a n in te rn a tio n a l E uro-c ent ric bo d y , d es pi te ev id enc e o f di ffi c ult y of co m p lia n ce b y q u a lif ie d lo c a l o rg a n iza tio n s . F ro m a n e o -in s tit u tio n a lis t p e rs p e c tiv e , t h e a d o p tio n o f IF R S app e ars to b e a c as e of ins tit ut io nal is o m orph is m , pa rtic u lar ly in it s c oe rc iv e a nd it s m im e tic fo rm , as the “perip h eral ” Ph ilippine ac c o unt ing prof es s ion , w ith t h e p ro d d in g o f s u p ra n a tio n a l g o v e rn a n c e a n d prof es s ional ins tit u tions , us e the k now le dg e s tand a rds of the “c ent er” to ga in le g it im a c y in the gl oba liz e d ec o nom y . T he pa per argu es t ha t the s uc c es s o f th e iso m o rp h ic p ro c e ss is a id e d b y t h e F ilip in o C P A s’ ow n p ro fe s s io n a l p roj e c t, a s IF R S a d o p tio n d e fin e d ne w s p ac es for pro fes s ional prac tic e, legi tim iz ed oc c u pat ion a l aut horit y in the g lob a l s erv ic es m ark e t, a n d e n h a n c e d c o lle c tiv e u p w a rd a n d “o u tw a rd ” mo b ilit y fo r p ra c tit io n e rs . De fin ing b o rd e rs be tw e e n pr of e s s ions in th e c h a n g in g w or ld. M e thod ol o g ic a l im p lic a tions of pr oc e s s e s of c a te g or iz a tio n a nd c la s s if ic a tion s o f oc c u p a tion s in E u ro p e Gi ov an ni C as tig lio ni, U niv er sit à C att oli ca d el S ac ro C uo re Oc c u p a tio n is a k e y v a ria b le in s o c ia l re s e a rc h c o n ce rn in g s c h o o l-t o -w o rk tr a n s itio n s , e m p lo ym e n t fo re c a s ti n g , v o c a ti o n a l e d u c a tio n a n d tr a in in g , a n d a ls o i n p ro c e s s e s o f p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n (T ijd e n s , 201 0). H o w e v er, now ad a y s th e bound ari es be tw een o c c upat iona l c at e gorie s a re inc reas ing ly blu rre d an d th e y a re le s s s ta n d a rd iz e d a n d h o m o g e n e o u s th a n in th e p a s t. T h e s k ills n e e d e d fo r a s p e c ifi c jo b d iff er tr e m e n d o u s ly e v e n w ith in o n e o c c u p a ti o n ( E u ro p e a n C om m is s ion , 201 2) . In th is re g a rd , p a rti c u la rly in th e E u ro p e a n c o n te x t, m a n y d iff e re n t in itia tiv e s a n d p ro je c ts h a v e b e e n in it ia ted in o rder to all o w m a x im um pa rti c ip a tion in the lab ou r m ark et t hrough a uni q ue , s tand ardi z ed app roac h to the w orld o f w or k . T h e E urope an U n io n h as in fac t in tr o duc e d a p ro c es s of h arm oniz at ion of
4 ski lls, a b ilit ie s, kn o w le d g e o f th e p ro fe s si o n s in pa rti c ula r th ro ugh fou r proj ec ts : E SC O ,1 D ISC O ,2 EU R ES ,3 E U SK IL LS PA N O R AM A4: - ES C O , the E uropean Sk ills , C o m p et enc es a nd O c c upa ti o n s t a x o n o m y is d e v e lo p in g in a m u ltil in g u a l fr a m e w o rk o f o c c u p a tio n s , s k ills , c o m p e te n c e s a n d q ual if ic at ions ; - D ISC O is a dic tio nar y (t he s aurus ) onl ine m u ltilin gua l c o llec ting term s on is s u es relat ed to the s k ills a nd prof es s ions ac q uired in di fferent lea rn ing c o nt ex ts , s u c h a s e d u c a tio n , v o c a ti o n a l tr a in in g a n d th e la bo u r ma rk e t. - E U R ES is th e European J ob M ob ilit y po rtal for dev el opi n g ne w s erv ic e s s uc h as ‘M at c h & M ap’ , w h ic h is a m ap w hos e purpos e is to op tim is e the m at c hin g o f ca n d id a te s to a va ila b le jo b o p p o rtu n itie s. - EU SK IL L S PA N O R A M A a im s to im p ro v e o u r c a p ac ity to as s es s and ant ic ipa te the s k ills ne eded to hel p ma k e e d u c a tio n a n d tr a in in g s y s te ms mo re r e s p o n s iv e t o la b o u r m a rk e t n e e d s a n d to m a tc h s k ill s u p p ly and de m and ac ros s Europe m ore ef fec tiv el y. T he Pa no ram a is a c e nt ral a c c es s poi nt for da ta , in fo rm at io n and in te llige n c e on s k ill ne eds in oc c u pat io ns and s ec tors . I t p ro v ide s a E uropean pers pec ti v e on trends for s k ill s up pl y a n d dem and a n d pos s ib le ski ll m ism a tc h e s, w h ile a lso g ivi n g in fo rm a tio n a b o ut nat iona l d at a a nd s ourc es . Al l thes e e ffor ts r e pres ent a s hi ft to a s k ills -c e n tr e d a p p ro a c h . N o w , in s te a d o f d e s c rib in g q u a lif ic a ti o n s wi th in p u t fa c to rs w ith f a c to rs o f e n tr y , th e f o c u s i s o n t h e k n o w le d g e , s k ills c o m p e te n c e s a n d a b ilit ie s ac q uire d by lea rn ers . T his is ref lec ted in the Eu ro pe an Q ua lif ic at ion s F ram e w o rk (EQ F ). I n fac t, in th e pos t-F ordi s t ec on om y , th e em ph as is is on a m odel o f h u m a n r e s o u rc e m a n a g e m e n t b a s e d o n th e ex p ert is e that em pha s is e s t h e k now led ge, s k ill s , ab ilit ie s a nd a ttit ud e s , w o rk -or ie n te d pe o p le n e e d to ac h iev e the organi z at io n 's s tr a te gic goa ls and obj e ct ive s a n d th e le ve ls o f p e rfo rm a n ce d e riv e d se co n d a ry to th o se g o a ls (H o rto n , 2 0 0 2 ) . Wh ile t h e s e p ro je c ts h a v e im p le m e n te d e ffo rts t o m e rge prof es s ions , jo b tit les , s k ills and qu a lif ic at ion s ac ros s c ount rie s from a s em ant ic poi nt o f v iew , the re a re fe w s tu d ie s th a t h a v e e x a m in ed w h a t th e me th o d o lo g ic a l i mp lic a tio n s a re s o fa r a n d th e d e v e lo p m e nt of an e m p iric a l u nd e rp in n in g for as s e s s m e nt of o c c upa tions in E urope c on s id e rin g the dut ie s , c o nt e n ts and w ork ac tiv ities r e qui re d. Probl em s ari s e, for e x am pl e, from the a ttr ibut io n o f th e d iffe re n t m e a n in g s th a t a jo b w ith th e s a m e n am e ca n h a ve in d iff e re n t co u n tri e s. T h e p ro je ct E u rO cc up a tions 5 (200 6-200 9) repres e nt ed a nov elt y in t hi s fi e ld : it a im e d to b u ild a fr e e ly a v a ila b le w e b -b a s ed d at abas e c ont ai ning 1, 50 0 to 2 ,0 00 of the m os t co m m o n o ccu p a tio n s; a n d t o t e s t th e si m ila rit y o f job c ont en t, th e re qui re d s k ill lev el , a nd c om pe te nc y prof iles for a s ele c tion o f 1 50 oc c upat ions a c ro s s th e e ig h t m e m b e r s ta te s in th e p ro je c t (B e lg iu m , Fr a n c e , G e rm a n y , I ta ly , N e th e rla n d s , P o la n d , S p a in , a n d U n ite d K in g d o m ). No wa d a y s , it is a p p ro p ria te to n o te th a t p ro fe s s io n al w ork progres s es m ore qu ic k ly th an in the p as t a n d th a t th is im p lie s th a t m a jo r c h a n g e s h a v e o c c u rr e d in the w o rld of w ork . T he p ro fes s ion s a re n o w in th e proc e s s o f prof ound trans form at ion. T he y m a y h a v e los t s om e im port anc e , but they h av e no t di s ap p eare d. T hey c ons tit ut e in term edi at e figures , in c om p let e , en gaged in a proc es s o f s low im ple m en tat ion, c ont en t k now ledge and prac tic al m an ua ls . So c iol o g ic a l re s e a rc h in rec e n t y e a rs ha s add re s s ed thi s is s ue b y deep e ning the them e of s em i-prof es s ions a nd qu a s i-p rof es s ions , thus al lo w in g th e o b s e rv a tio n o f h o w a c o m p o s ite r e a lit y c o m p lic a te s th e w a y in w h ic h th e la b o u r m a rk e t is d e s c rib e d and c las s ified. H ow ev er , at the s am e tim e, it is th ough t-prov ok ing to find app ro pr iat e to ols to analy s e this . So c iol o gi s ts c la s s ify oc c upat io ns ac c or d ing t o t he ty p e o f k n o w le d g e a n d s k ills r e q u ire d t o p e rfo rm a part ic u lar ta s k a nd ac c ordi ng to thi s c las s if ic a tio n prof es s ions are as s igned to a s p ec ial c at ego ry of w o rk . In th e fa c e o f a ll th e s e c h a n g e s , th e p a p e r a im s to a n a ly s e th e d iff e re n t a p p ro a c h e s a n d t o o ls r e q u ire d for th e c la s s ifi c a tio n a n d s ta n d a rd iz a ti o n o f p ro fe s s io ns , r ef le c ting in p art ic ular o n h o w thes e p ro c es s es h a v e bee n inf lu enc e d by p o lic ie s , ag enda s a nd dec is io ns ma d e a t E u ro p e a n a n d in te rn a tio n a l l e v e l. T h e p a p e r prov ides a ls o s om e ex am ina tion of thei r c ons e quen c e s o n th e a n a ly s is o f la b o u r m a rke t tr e n d s, th e proc e s s es o f p ro fes s ion aliz at ion and on o c c upa tion a l s tru c tu re . In p a rt ic u la r, s o m e ref le c tio n w ill b e fo c u s e d o n th e c rite ria a d o p te d fo r th e c a te g o riz a tion o f pro fes s ions in the ope ra tion of c las s ific a tion s . So ci al P o lar is ati o n a n d m ig rati o n to Jo h an n esb u rg
1 h ttp s :/ /e c .e u ro p a .e u /e s c o /h o m e 2 h ttp :/ /d is c o -to o ls .e u /d is c o 2 _ p o rta l/ 3 h ttp s :/ /e c .e u ro p a .e u /e u re s /p a g e /h o m e p a g e ? la n g = e n 4 h ttp :/ /e u s k ills p a n o ra m a .c e d e fo p .e u ro p a .e u / 5 h ttp s :/ /e u ro c c .ic a re s .c o m /
5 Ja cq ue lin e B or el-S ala din , H S R C Th e m a n u fa c tu rin g s e c to r, o n c e a m a jo r s o u rc e o f u rban em plo y m e n t and c ons is ting of a lar g e perc e nt a ge of s k illed a n d s em i-s k ille d, m idd le-inc o me jo b s h a s d e c lin e d w h ile th e s e rv ic e s e c to r, a rg u ed to c o m p ris e p re d o m in a n tl y e ith e r h ig h -s k ill, h ig h -p ay or low -s k ill, low -p a y job s , ha s g ro w n. T he d ec line of ma n u fa c tu rin g a n d t h e g ro wt h o f th e s e rv ic e s e c to r are theref ore argu ed to r e s ul t in a m ore pol ariz ed oc c u pat ion a l s truc ture. G ro w ing n um b e rs of low -w a g e , lo w -s k ill s e rv ic e s e c to r j o b s a re a ls o s a id to a ttr a c t poo rly ed uc a te d, un s k illed im m igrant s from rural ar eas an d/ o r de v elo p in g c ou nt ries . T he c on te nt ion is th a t th e s e m ig ra n ts b e c o m e tr a p p e d in th e lo w -s k ill, lo w -w a g e s e rv ic e s e c to r j o b s , t h e re by e x a c e rb a ting s o c ia l polaris at ion. An a lt ernat iv e ar g um ent is t ha t th ere i s a t re n d t o w a rd s p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n , w ith a g e n er a l upg rading of s k ill s am ong the em pl o y ed w ork forc e an d a gr ow th o f no n -m a n u a l c ler ic a l, s a le s , t e c h n ic a l, prof es s ional and m a n ager ial jobs . C ons eq uent ly , un s ki lle d m ig ra n ts a re li ke ly t o b e u n e m p lo y e d r a th e r th a n e m p lo y e d in lo w -s k ille d jo b s . H o u s e h o ld s u rv e y a n d p o p u la tio n c e n s u s r e s u lts fo r t h e J o h a n n e s b u rg regi o n of So ut h Af ric a f ro m 1 980 to 20 07 w er e us ed to e x p lo re th e r e la ti o n s h ip b e tw e e n m ig ra n ts a n d so ci a l p o la risa tio n . 6 T h e r e s u lts sh o w th a t m ig ra n ts h a v e a v e ry s im ila r o c c u p a tio n a n d e d u c a ti o n p ro fi le to n a ti v e s a n d th a t th e ir p re s e n c e d o e s n o t c a u s e s oc ia l p o la ris a tio n b u t s u p po rts g ro w in g prof es s ionali z at ion in s te ad. Mo s t a u th o rs a g re e th a t g lo b a l c itie s a re p o in ts o f c o n c e n tr a tio n f o r t h e p ro d u c e r s e rv ic e s v ita l to ma n a g in g g lo b a l fin a n c ia l s y s te m s a n d t h e h ig h -s k ill, h ig h -p a y w o rk e rs t h a t p e rf o rm t h e s e t as k s . If th is wa s th e o n ly p h e n o m e n o n in q u e s tio n , th e re wo u ld like ly b e a n in d isp u ta b le tre n d to w a rd s prof es s ionalis at ion and n o de bat e ab out in c reas ing po lari s at ion . T he the or y of s oc ial pol ar is a tion is in d eed an app ea ling one ; ho w ev er, s om e s c hol ars q ue s tion th e e v id e nc e in s u pp o rt o f it . Ma n y p o la ris a tio n th e o ris ts a ls o c o n te n d t h a t w h ile t h e n a tiv e r e s id e n ts o f th e c ity fill th e g ro w ing num ber s o f hi gh-s k ill , h igh-w ag e s erv ic e s e c to r jobs , uns k ill ed im m igra n ts to th e c it y fil l th e co n co m ita n tly in cr e a si n g n u m b e r o f lo w -w a g e s e rv ic e jo b s . T h ey w ou ld a rg u e t h a t m ig ra n ts a re di s prop ort io nat el y c o nc e nt rat ed in low -w a g e s erv ic e s e c to r jo b s . Y e t v e ry fe w s c h o la rs p ro v id e e v id e n c e fo r th e s e c la im s a n d w h e re e v id e n c e is p re s e n te d , it o fte n d o e s n o t s u p p o rt th e s o c ia l p o la ris a tio n hy p o th e s is a n d th e r o le o f m ig ra n ts th e re in . Th e p u rp o s e o f t h is r e s e a rc h w a s to c rit ic a lly a s s e ss th e so ci a l p o la risa tio n h y p o th e si s u si n g su rv e y da ta fo r J o h a n n e s b u rg . T h e e v id e n c e d o e s n o t s u p p o rt th e s o c ia l p o la ris a tio n h y p o th e s is , n a m e ly , t h a t t h e ch a n g in g se ct o ra l s tr u c tu re h a s le d t o e q u a l in cr e a se s in h ig h - a n d lo w -ski ll w o rk, a t th e e xp e n se o f ski lle d m id d le -in co m e , m a n u a l e m p lo y m e n t. T h e d o m in ant pat tern is one o f inc reas ing nu m b er s o f hi gh-ski ll, h ig h -p a y jo b s. W h ile t h e n u m b e rs o f lo w -ski ll w ork ers di d in c reas e b et w ee n 1980 and 2 010, t he abs ol u te grow th in the n um be rs of h igh er-s k illed , h ig her-pa id m an a gerial, p ro fe s s ion al, as s oc iat e prof es s ional and tec hn ic al w ork e rs w as tw o and a h a lf ti m e s g re a te r th a n th a t a m o n g s t lo w -s k ill w o rk e rs. Th is le d to a m a rk e d s k e w in g o f t h e o c c u p a tio n a l d ist rib u tio n to w a rd s h ig h -sk ill w o rk. Mi g ra n ts t o J o h a n n e s b u rg a ls o h a v e a v e ry s imi la r o ccu p a tio n a l a n d e d u ca tio n a l d ist rib u tio n t o n a tive res ident s . 7 T h e y are w e ll re pres ent ed in high-s k ill, h ig h -p a y a n d s em i-s k ille d , m id d le -in c om e w o rk a n d not o v erw he lm in gly un e du c at ed and m argin a lis ed in low -s k ill s erv ic e s ec tor w ork . D e s pit e m igrant s hav in g a s im ilar oc c upat io n al d is tribu tion to n at iv es ov e ra ll, in d iv id ual im m ig rant c o m m u nit ie s h av e v aried oc c u pat ion a l ou tc o m e s . Bri ef ly , a lt houg h his tori c al ly th e v as t m a jorit y of hi gh-s k ill jobs w ere held b y W h ite me n , a n d d e s p ite th e g re a te s t tre n d to wa rd s p ro fe s s io n a lis at io n o c c u rr in g a m o n g s t C ol o ur e d s an d In d ia n s , it is in fa c t th e in c re a s in g p ro fe s s io n a lisa tio n o f n a tive a n d in te rn a l m ig ra n t A fri ca n m e n a nd wo me n a n d W h ite wo me n t h a t h a s s ig n ific a n tly c h a n g e d the di s tr ibut io n of hig h-s k ill o c c upa tions a nd co n tr ib u te d m o st in a b so lu te t e rm s t o w a rd s in cr e a si ng p ro fe s s io n a lis a tio n in t h e J o h a n n e s b u rg r e g io n bet w e en 1980 and 200 7. Co n tr a ry to w h a t ma n y p o la ris a tio n th e o ris ts a rg u e , i t d o e s n o t a p p e a r th a t u n e d u c a te d , u n s k ille d im m igra nt s are be ing at tra c ted in large nu m b ers to wo rk in a b u rg e o n in g lo w -wa g e s e rv ic e s e c to r in Jo h a n n e s b u rg . In s te a d , th e d ist rib u tio n o f o c cu p a tion s a m o n g s t m ig ra n ts is a s d iv e rs e a s a m o n g s t nat iv es and they are not c o nf ine d to low -s k ill w ork . T h e s u rv e y d a ta fo r J o h a n n e s b u rg s h o w th a t m ig ra n ts hav e s im ilar oc c upat io nal d is tribu tions t o nat iv es , a n d t h a t a ll m ig ra n ts h a v e c o n tr ib u te d s ig n ific a n tly in abs ol u te term s to th e grow th of m a nage ria l, prof es s io n a l, a s s o c iat e p ro fes s io n al a n d te c h ni c a l oc c u pat ion s , an d the ref ore, the trend tow a rd s inc re as ing prof es s ionali s at ion .. T he pres en c e of m ig ra nt s in
6 J o h a n n e s b u rg re fe rs to t h e c ity -r e g io n o f th e G a u ten g p ro v in c e of S o u th A fri c a . 7 A m ig ra n t i s d e fin e d a s a n y o n e b o rn o u ts id e o f th e p ro v in c e .
6 th is c a s e c o u ld b e a rg u e d to b e m o re r e le v a n t to th e p ro c e s s of th e s k e w ing o f t he o c c up a tio n d is tr ib u ti o n to w a rd s in c re a s in g p ro fe s s io n a liz a ti o n th a n g ro w in g p o la ris a tio n . As Sou th A fr ic a is a c ou nt ry w ith large nu m bers of uns k illed a d ul ts , it w oul d not be unreas o na bl e to ex p ec t that the grow th in hig h-s k ill oc c upat io ns w o uld be ac c o m p an ie d b y a c onc om it ant grow th in low -ski ll w o rk. W h y a re th e u n e m p lo y e d n o t t a ki n g u p lo w-s k ill, lo w-w a g e jo b s ? B e c a u s e th e re s im p ly a re n o t eno u gh low -s k ill, low -w a ge jo bs fo r th e large uns k illed lab o ur forc e . T his perha p s un ders c ores a fu n d a m e n ta l d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n d e v e lo p e d c o u n tr ie s and de v el o ping c oun tri es : v a s tly dif ferent lev e ls o f we a lth . A rg u a b ly , e v e n th o u g h th e re a re in c re a s in g num be rs of h igh-s k ill , hi gh-p a y w ork ers , the perc e nt a ge of the tot al populat io n the y form , a nd the a m ou n t o f m o n e y th e y e a rn , is n o t e n o ug h to gen er at e the de m a nd fo r t h e lo w -s k ill, lo w -pa y s erv ic e s e c to r jo b s n e c e s s a ry to c re a te e m p lo y m e n t f or th e ma jo rit y o f u n s k ille d w o rk e rs . T h e re h a s s im p ly n o t b e e n s u ffi c ie n t e c o n o m ic g ro w th a n d j o b c re a tio n i n co m p a riso n to la b o u r fo rce g ro w th in S o u th A fr ica . Th is h a s a ls o r e s u lte d in g ro wi n g p ro fe s s io n a lis a tion ac c o m pa ni e d b y inc reas in g u nem p lo y m e nt and a large ou ts id er s ur pl u s po p u la tio n. T h is h ig h ligh ts t w o point s : firs t, that prof es s ional is a tio n is n ot a pr oc es s th at o c c ur s onl y in W es tern, dev el op e d ec ono m ies , and s ec ond, that p ro fe s s ion a lis at io n c a n b e ac c o m pa ni ed by u ne m pl oy m en t u n d e r q u ite d iff e re n t ci rcu m st a n ce s to th o se p ro p o se d b y o th e r a u th o rs ( i.e . a d e q u a te w e lfa re b e n e fi ts m a k in g it u n n e c e s s a ry fo r w o rk e rs to h o ld lo w -w a g e jo b s a n d c h o o s e u n e m p loy m en t i n s te a d ). T h u s , g ro w in g p ro fe s s io n al is a tio n is ac c om panied b y gro w in g u nem plo y m e nt and a la rge ou ts id e r s u rp lu s p o p u la tion in J o h an n e s bu rg . Bo n d b y E U la b ou r m a rk e ts , di v ide d b y p rof e s s ion a l bou n da ri e s : n u rs e m ig ra tio n in tim e s o f au ster it y El le n Ku hl m an n, Jan Joc hm ar in g an d T ani a Jens en, T U D or tm un d, Eu ro p ean lab o ur m ark et pol ic y an d the p ol itic s of a us terit y hav e fos tered m igrat io n and m obi lit y o f he al th prof es s ional s in Eu ro pe, and thi s in t u rn , ha s c rea te d n e w c h a n c e s f o r b o th h e a lth c a re s y s te m s a n d in d iv id ua l nurs e s . H ow e v er , t he bou ndar ies of n a tio nal prof es s ional groups an d re gu lat o ry arrang e m ent s are s til l po w erf u l and m a y c on s trai n inc lus iv e w ork fo rc e p o lic ie s . A G e rm a n -S p a n is h c a s e s tu d y s e rv e s to ex p lore the c hallenges o f a m ore in c lus iv e prof es s ion a lis m in a high ly p olit ic is ed c on te x t o f EU aus te rit y polic ies th at hit s o ut h ern E urop ea n c ount ri es m os t. W e in tro d u c e a ‘g lo c a lis in g ’ a p p ro a c h fo c u s in g regi o na l/loc a l dev e lo pm e nt s in nu rs ing in the ec ono mi c a lly w e a k re g io n o f Mu rc ia /S p a in w ith a n ov e rp rod uc tion of ac ade m ic n ur s es and th e in dus tria lis ed a re a s o f R u hr ge b iet /G e rm a n y w ith g ro w in g dem and fo r hea lt hc are p rof es s ions . D raw in g o n m u lt i-l e v el go v erna nc e th eo ry w e s eek to link in s tit ut iona l/ organ is at io n al a nd net w ork -bas ed a ppr oac h e s t o e x p lo re t h e c o n te x ts o f n u rs e m ig ra tio n in th e s e n d in g a n d r e c e iv in g c o u n tr ie s . A c a s e s tu d y d es ig n is a p p lie d c o m p ri s in g d o c u m e n t a n a ly s is a n d fo c u s g ro u p d is c u s s io n s w ith n u rs e s in h ig h e r e d u c a ti o n p ro g ra m m e s in S p a in , a n d w ith S p a n is h n u rs e s in G erm any w h o m igrat e d (af ter 2008 ) a nd are em pl o y ed in hea lthc are. Preli m inar y fi ndi ngs s ugg es t an ov e ra ll p oor in teg ra tion an d s tr o ng pe rs is ting pr o fes s io n a l bo u n da rie s t h a t le a d t o in e ffic ien t w o rk fo rc e ma n a g e me n t a n d n e w s o c ia l in e q u a lit ie s wi th in th e n urs in g prof es s ion in G er m a n y an d the w id er Eu ro p ean h ea lthc a re land s c ape . F inal ly , s om e c onc lu si o n s a re p re se n te d o n th e b e n e fit s o f a g lo ca lisi n g app roac h int o prof es s io nal dev el op m e n t an d th e nee d f o r m o re i n c lu s iv e f o rm s o f p ro fe s s io n a lis m a n d wo rk fo rc e g o v e rn a n c e . Re c ur re n t T h e m e s in R e s e a rc h on the In te rn a tio n a l M ig ra tio n o f H e a lt h W o rk e rs . Vi vien R un nel s, Iv y Ly nn B ourge au lt, R onal d Labo nté a nd C or in ne P ac ke r, U niv er sity o f O tta w a Th e m ig ra tio n o f h e a lth w o rk e rs f ro m d e v e lo p in g s o u rc e c ount ries t o d ev el ope d des tin at ion c o unt ries , co n tin u e s to b e a n issu e o f g lo b a l co n ce rn , p a rti cu larly for its li nk s w it h s hort ages o f hea lt h w o rk e rs a n d lo s s of inv es tm ent , k n ow le dg e and s k ill s . A n em piri ca l s tu d y o n th e m ig ra tio n o f h e a lth w o rke rs fr o m four repres en ta tiv e ‘s ourc e’ c o unt ries Sou th A fr ic a, I nd ia, t h e Phi lip pi n es an d J am ai c a - w as un dert a k en to in v es tiga te th e c au s es , c on s equ e nc es and pol ic y res po n s e s to th e m ig ra tio n o f he a lth w o rk e rs . In Se pt em ber 2013, res earc h team m em bers pres ent ed the ir a na ly s e s o f t h e lit e rat u re a nd e m p iric a l d at a at a pub lic s y m pos ium and a pre/ pos t team m eet ing o v er t h re e d a y s . C u rr e n t re s e a rc h f o c i a n d p o lic ie s to ma n a g e in te rn a tio n a l mi g ra tio n o f h e a lth wo rk e rs p redom in an tly foc u s es on indi v id ual s ’ m igrat io n dec is io ns a nd inf lue nc es o n them . H o w ev e r, the re c u rr en t the m e s id ent if ie d ac ros s the in terna tional res ea rc h te am s inc lu de: ho w ‘s te pped ’ o r s tag ed m ig rat ion prom ot es inc reas e d m obili ty c halle n gi n g not ions of p erm anent or s ing le de s tinat io n c ount ry mi g ra tio n ; th e in te rn a tio n a l p riv a tiz a tio n o f h e a lth c are and r e -s truc turing of int ernal and ex terna l lab our ma rk e ts w h ic h c o n s tra in s g o v e rn me n t a c tio n ; th e d e
-7 ski llin g o f h e a lth w o rke rs in d e st in a tio n co u n tr ie s ; a n d t h e n e e d fo r a s e x a n d g e n d e r a n a ly s is o f h e a lt h wo rk e r mi g ra tio n . T h e s e th e me s s u g g e s t t h a t fa c to rs t h a t l ie o u ts id e t h e h e a lth s e c to r h a v e a c rit ic a l im pac t on he alt h w ork er m ig ra tio n. T ha t is , th es e them es are large ly ex ternal to hea lt h s y s tem s an d healt h s y s tem s pol ic y , and loc a ted a t di s tal lev el s , s u g g e s ti n g r e -c o n s id e ra ti o n o f ty p ic a l th e o re ti c a l a nd polic y de v elop m ent r e lat ed to heal th w ork er labo ur ma rk e ts . Ex cl u si o n a ry In cl u si o n in to th e L e g al Pr o fes si o n : the is s ue s f o r L e ga l E d u c a tion a n d T ra in ing in th e U K Hi la ry S omme rla d, U niv er sit y o f B irmi ng ha m Th e d e m o g ra p h ic c o m p o s itio n o f th e le g a l p ro fe s s io n i n m a n y ju ris d ic tio n s h a s b e e n c h a ra c te ris e d o v e r th e p a s t t w o d e c a d e s b y th e in c lu s io n o f h is to ric a lly e x c lu de d m in orit is ed g ro ups . H ow ev er, thi s inc lus io n has been large ly in s ubo rd in a te rol es , on the b as is o f fa c ilit a tin g t h e e x p a n s io n o f l e g a l w o rk a n d a n ec o nom ic libera lis a tion w hi c h has all o w e d p ro fit m a xi m isa tio n , th u s a p p e a rin g to vi n d ica te M a rxi s t th e o rie s o f d e -p ro fe s s io n a lis a ti o n . R e c e n tly , th e re has be en a fu rt her det erio ra tion in the term s on w h ic h th e p ro fe s s io n is u s in g in c re a s in g n u m b e rs o f ‘o u tsi d e r’ la w g ra d u a te s, su ch th a t t h e y co u ld b e d e scr ibed as a ‘p re c ariat ’, s ubj ec t t o le s s s ec ure c ont rac ts an d in fe rior re w a rd s a n d s tat us . Th is s itu a tio n ra is e s q u e s tio n s fo r th e fu tu re o f leg al ed uc at ion an d tr a in ing, rec e nt ly s u b je c t to a co m p re h e n si ve r e vi e w in th e U n ite d K in g d o m . T h e tr a dit io n a l l ib e ra l s c h o las tic e d u c a tio n d e s ig n e d for th e fu tu re e lit e s o f th e p ro fe s s io n h o ld s o u t fa ls e p ro mi s e s to mi n o rit is e d g ro u p s , t h e ma jo rit y o f wh o m fai l to adv anc e to the v oc a tional s tage o f lega l qual ific at ion an d on int o e m p lo y m en t. H ow ev er on e of the al te rn at iv e rout es bas e d o n v oc at io nal c o m pet enc e c ou ld c ry s tallis e m odes of rac ial a n d et h nic ex c lus ion. Th is p a p e r d ra w s o n a B o u rd ie u s ia n to e x p lo re th e p ot en tia l o f ed u c a tion in ‘s u b -te rr an e a n’ an d em bodi ed prof es s iona l k no w ledge of ho w to dres s , s p eak an d en gage in the le gal prof es s ion’ s hom os oc ial rit ual s , u s ing a rec ent s tudy of the ex p erien c es of law gradu at es in prec ari ous ‘em plo y m ent ’ and o n going res earc h int o p ro fes s ion al id ent it y . I t a ls o u s e s D e v o n C a rb a d o ’s c o n c e p t o f ‘ ra c ia l c h a ra ct e r’ to e x p lo re th e d ile m m a s o f c o n fo rm ity t o h e g e m o n ic pr of es s ion a lis m . Eu ro p e a n Yo u th G u ar an tee : ch al len g es a n d p ro sp ects fo r E. U . co h e si o n ” So fia Bou ts iouk i, U ni vers ity of M ac ed oni a In r e c e n t y e a rs th e E u ro p e a n U n io n h a s u n d e rta k e n a m u ltil e v e l a n d c o m p re h e n s iv e s e t o f a c tio n s i n order to add re s s the ec on om ic c ons equen c es of the o ngoi ng gl o ba l c ri s is and the ris in g s o c ial co n fr o n ta tio n s. S tr o n g e m p h a si s h a s b e e n g ive n to e mp lo y m e n t a n d le a rn in g b e c a u s e o f t h e ir c ru c ia l r o le in ev ery d ev elopm ent s trat eg y . T hey al s o m ai nt ain a k e y p o s itio n a s fa c to rs o f m e m b e r s ta te s ’ a n d in d iv id ua ls ’ s oc ial a nd ec o n om ic w el fare. I n addi tion, t hey c on s tit u te im port ant p art s o f E U pol ic ies an d nat iona l p ra c tic es . I n 2 013 the Europ ean U n io n int rod uc ed th e Europe an Yout h G ua ra nt e e in an e ffort to reac t in a proac tiv e w a y to the s o c io ec on o m ic im pli ca tio n s o f t h e p e rs is tin g u n fa vo u ra b le co n d itio n s in the la b our m ark et es pec ial ly for th e y ou ng er c o hort s of E u ro p e a n s . T h is in itia ti v e d e c la re s th e d e c is iv e n e ss o f th e E u ro p e a n U n io n a n d n a tio n a l a u th o rit ie s “ to e n s ure that a ll yo ung peo pl e u n de r the ag e of 2 5 y ears rec ei v e a good qua lit y of fer of em ploy m ent , c ont inu ed ed uc at io n, an ap prent ic e s hip or a tr a ine es h ip wi th in a p e rio d o f fo u r mo n th s o f b e c o mi n g u n e mp lo y ed or leav ing form al edu c at io n ” (C ou nc il Re c o mm e n d a tio n o f 2 2 .4 .2 0 1 3 ). F irs t, th e p a p e r e x p lores t he de term inant c irc um s tan c es w hic h inc ite d su ch a n in itia tive . T h e n , i t a n a ly se s its a im s a n d fo c u s e s o n th e a s p ire d o p p o rtu n iti e s , th e c h a lle n g e s a n d th e p ro s p e c ts o f th e E u ro p e a n Y o u th G u a ra n te e o n b o th a s y m b o lic a n d a re a lis tic b a s is fo r its st a ke h o ld e rs . T h e p a p e r a lso e xa m in e s th e r e ce n t d e ve lo p m e n ts r e g a rd in g it s im p le m e n ta tio n e s p e ci a lly in m e m b er s tat es al re ad y e nga g ed in unf av ourab le s o ci o e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s. F in a lly , i t h ig h lig h ts ce rtai n def ic ien c ies that w ou ld pot en tial ly hi n der its e ffe ct iv e im p le m e n ta tio n .
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Wh e n a m a n a g e r b e c o m e s a p ro fe s s io n a l. T o m a k e o n e ’s ju ri sd ic tio n reco g n iz ed b y u s in g me a s u rin g : t h e e x a m p le o f d iv e rs it y m a n a g e me n t i n F ra n c e Co ns ta nc e P er rin -J oly , Un iv er sit é P ar is 1 3 Th e a d v e n t o f m a n a g e ria lis m h a s n o t o n ly li m ite d p rof es s iona l aut ono m y , but it h as als o c ont ribut ed to a ris e o f ne w prof es s ion alis m . T hi s is the c a s e o f di ve rsi ty m a n a g e rs in b ig F re n ch fi rm s , a n e xa m p le w e8 propo s e to look int o. T his pa per is bas e d on an ex p lo ra to ry qu a lit a tiv e r e s e a rc h . W e p ro p o s e to a n a ly z e ho w m an ag er ia l v al ues di re c t the proc es s o f pr o fe s s io na liz a tion o f ne w oc c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s an d c re a te in e quali ty ba s ed on the c ap ac it y to m a k e v is ibl e th ei r q u a nt it at iv e c o n tri b ut io n . O ur p a pe r w ill p ar ticu la rly fo c u s o n d iffe re n t w a ys to u s e m e a s u rin g . Di v e rs ity m a n a g e rs u s e d iff e re n t in d ic a to rs t o ma k e v is ib le t h e ir w o rk a n d t h e ir c o n tri b u tio n t o f in a n ci a l res ul ts in order to b e re c ogniz ed as a s p ec ific oc c upa tion al group. N e v er th ele s s , the y int erf ere w it hi n an area tha t it hard to m e as ure. M eas u ring is a m ea ns to m a k e th e ir ju ris d ic ti o n re c o g n iz e d b y o th e r oc c u pat ion a l group s w it hin the firm , o th ers m ana g er s in p a rti cu la r. T h e fo c u s o n m e a su rin g a n d co m m u n ica tio n o n it s u b s tit u te s a co n cr e te p ro fe ssi on a l a c tiv it y. M e a s u rin g b e c o m e a w a y to pi lo t, to st a n d a rd iz e co m m u n ica tio n b y d ra w in g c h a rts a n d r e d uc ing th e c om pl ex it y of the inf orm a tion. M e as uring is us ed to prom ot e ac tio ns to c om pa n y lea d ers , bu t at the end , m eas u ring bec o m e the ir u niq u e ac tiv ity .
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How pol ic ie s r e w rit e oc c u pa tio n a l s c ri p ts . T he d e c lin e o f th e re c o g n it io n a w a rd e d f o r c a re w o rk oc c upa tions in the c ont e x t of a g lo c a liz ing w e lfa re s y s te m Si rp a W rede, U ni vers ity of H el sin ki Th e c u rr e n t p o lit ic s o f c a re w o rk fo rc e m a n a g e m e n t, ro o ted in neolib era l gl o ba liz at ion, hav e pa rtic ular n e w fe a tu re s . F irs t, p o lic y m a k e rs a tte n ti v e to th e v a lue of m a rk et m ec h anis m s fram e c are as a c om m odi ty in th e tr a n s n a ti o n a l s e rv ic e e c o n o m y . S e c o n d , c a re w o rk er re c ru it m ent is s im ilarl y fram ed as a tr a n s n a ti o n a l p ra c tic e . T h e r e s u lti n g n e w o c c u p a ti o na l s c ript s b uil d on the id e a of c ar e a s s ta ndardi s ab le se rvi ce w o rk. F ro m th e p e rsp e ct ive o f th e ca re w o rk fo rc e th e n e w s ta n d a rd iz in g s c rip ts s tr u c tu re th e co n te n t o f w o rk. F u rth e rm o re , th e y a re li n k e d t o n e w in e q u a lit ie s in t h e c a re w o rk fo rc e t h a t a re a t th e sa m e ti m e tr a n sn a tio n a l a n d lo ca lly a n ch o re d . Th is p a p e r c o n s id e rs th e c u rr e n t F in n is h p o lic ie s o rg an iz ing c a re w o rk , p ay in g pa rti c u la r a tte n tio n to t h e oc c u pat ion a l rol es as s ign e d to m igran t c are w ork ers . It e m p lo y s d o c u m e n ta ry a n a ly s is t o c o n s id e r th e gl oc a liz ed d y na m ic s of t he m an ag em en t of t he c are w ork forc e in th e c ont ex t o f pub lic polic ies in the He ls in k i me tr o p o lit a n a re a . W h ile t h e n u mb e rs o f mi grant c are w ork ers are low e r than in m a n y ot her co u n tr ie s, F in la n d , w ith it s h ist o ry a s a w e lfa re s ta te o f a N o rd ic ty p e , re p re s e n ts a c a s e w h e re th e cu ltu ra l ch a n g e s o ccu rr in g in n u rsi n g ’s so ci a l o rg a n iz a tio n ar e part ic ul arl y s tri k ing . M o s t s ali ent ly , the p ap er argue s , it is e v ide nt that th e s ta te ha s w ithd raw n fr o m its e a rli e r “s k illi n g p ro je c t” . T h e p a p e r fu rther link s polic y s c ript s w ith t h e oc c up at ion a l s ubj ec tiv it ies o f c a re w o rk e rs , c la im in g t h a t c a re w o rk e rs e n c o u n te r su ch sc rip ts th ro u g h th e w a y th e ir w o rk is o rg a n iz e d as jobs an d oc c upa tio ns . Co ns e nt e d a nd e nf or c e d de le ga tio n s of ta s k s . Hos p ital s an d th e ju d ic iar y in F ra n ce Fl or en t C ha m py , Na tio na l C en tre fo r S cie nti fic R es earc h, F ranc e In te ra c tio n is ts h a d h ig h lig h te d a p ro c e s s o f d iv is ion of la bor be tw e en oc c up at ions , p ec ul iarly in the hos pit al : the de leg at io ns b y w hi c h do c to rs w ere ab a ndonin g t he ir le s s qual if ied t a s k s t o w ork e rs u nder th e ir a u th o rit y, a s n u rs e s . T h e s e d e le g a tio n s w e re we lc o me d b y e v e ry b o d y , a s th e y c o n tr ib u te d to ma k e prof es s ional juris d ic tion s m ore q ua lif ie d . In re c en t y e a rs th e re h a v e b e e n s e v e ra l a tte m p ts b o th in hos pit al s and in the jud ic iar y in F ranc e , to prov ok e n e w d e le g a tio n s o f ta s k s fr om d o c to rs to n u rs e s a nd fr o m m a g is tr a te s t o c le rk s . A r e p o rt to t h e M in is te r o f J u s tic e p ro p o s e d t o e n tru s t c a s e s f o r d iv o rc e by mu tu a l c o n s e n t to c le rk s in s te a d o f m a g is tr a te s . T h is propos al prov ok e d s trong opp os it ions from ma g is tr a te s , a n d w a s (u n til n o w) a b a n d o n e d . S im ila rly , a la w a llo w s d el e ga tio n s to n u rs e s o f ta s k s norm a lly a s s ig n ed to d oc to rs . A n at tem pt t o a pply it in P a ris ia n h o s p ita ls p ro v o k e d th e o p p o s iti o n o f doc tors w ho inv ok ed t he ri s k it w o uld b rin g for pa tient s , and m o re s u rp ris ingl y of the repres e nt a tiv es o f nurs e s . Th is p re s e n ta tio n w ill fo c u s o n th e s e a tte m p ts a n d th e d e b a te s th e y p ro v o k e d . W h a t c o n c e p ti o n s o f prof es s ionalis m an d d iv is io n of labor do s uc h debat es re v eal ? S h ou ld w e s ee thes e at tem pt s as a co n tin u a tio n o f th e o ld d e le g a tio n s o f ta sk s , o r a s s o m e th in g n e w e r? A n d if s o , w h a t is a t s ta k e n o t o nl y fo r th e m e m b e rs o f th e o c c u p a tio n s in v o lv e d , b u t a lso fo r c lie n ts o r u s e rs o f p ro fe s s io n a l s e rvi c e s? I w ill9 se e k to sh o w th a t t h e co n c e p t o f p h ro n e si s, w h ic h is u se d b y a ct o rs o n e a ch si d e to ju st ify th e ir p o si ti o n , ca n sh e d li g h t o n b ig issu e s o f t h e se d e b a te s . B u t a re fle c tio n o n th e re lat io n s h ip b e tw e e n p h ro ne s is an d di v is ion of labo r i s n eeded . NP M re fo rm s a n d m ul ti-pr o fe s s io na l t e a m w or k in h e a lth car e He le na S er ra , Ne w Un iv er sit y o f L is bo n Th is p a p e r c o n c e rn s m u lti-p ro fe s s io n a l te a m w o rk in he a lt h c a re in c o nt e x ts of s tro n g e c o n om ic an d ef fic ienc y c ont rol s res u lt ing from the N ew P ub lic M ana g em e nt (N PM ) re form s . Ef for ts bet w e en d iff e ren t hea lth prof es s ional s an d wo rk g ro u p s o fte n re s u lt in c o n flic t a n d te n s io n . Co o p e ra tio n d iff ic u ltie s a re t h o u g h t to e x is t a n d m any o f thi s probl em s are as s um ed a s as s oc iat ed w it h (but not onl y) the di fferenc e s bet w e en th e s ev eral pr of e s s io nal s elf -gov erna nc e m ec ha nis m s inv ol v ed in th e m u lti-p ro fe s s io n a l te a m s . A lth o u g h , a s s e v e ra l so ci o lo g ica l st u d ie s sh o w , m o st o f th is co n flict s a re built from th e draw ing of bou n daries be tw e en m ed ic a l s pec ialt ies (S e rra, 2011) and dif ferent hea lt h prof es s ions . As t ea m w ork is a net w ork of s em i-i n de pe n de n t prof es si o n a ls w h o t e n d t o r e p re se n t th e ir p ro fe ssi o n a l organis at ions an d groups d es pi te s harin g a m u tual int eres t in t he p a tient s , f ro n tiers bet w e e n di ffere nt healt h pro fes s ions ac t, on the on e hand , as a rt ic u lat in g m e c hani s m s to b e fou nd in the di v is ion o f hea lt h wo rk a n d a s b a rr ie rs to th e in te ra c tio n o f th e v a riou s s k ills . T he a rg um ent is that N PM ref orm s in hea lt h ca re m a y n o t h a ve im p ro ve d th e si tu a tio n . G ive n th e se c o n d itio n s , t h e re is a g o o d r e a s o n to u n d e rs ta n d ho w c oo perat ion bet w e e n di fferent hea lt h pro fes s ion s is c o n st ru ct e d a s th e y w o rk to g e th e r in t h e b e st in te re s t o f pat ie nt s . H ow e v e r, it is als o po s s ib le th a t th e c o n ti n u e d in fl u e n c e o f p ro fe s s io n a l s e lf-gov erna nc e a nd th e inc reas in g s tren gt h o f m ana ge m en t m e c h a n is m s w ill re s u ltin g in n e w a rr a n g e m e n ts in term s o f prof es s iona lis m . Pr o fe s si o n a lism in Pu b lic Em p lo y m e n t Se rv ice: J o b P la c e m e n t o ff ic e rs b e tw e e n p ro fe s s io n a l a n d ma n a g e ria l i n te re s ts Fr an k S ow a, In sti tu te fo r E m plo ym en t R es ea rc h ( IA B ) a nd R on ald S ta ple s, F rie dr ic h-A le xa nd er -U niv er sit y Du e to th e tr a n s fo rm a tio n o f t h e P u b lic E mp lo y m e n t Se rv ic e fr o m a tr a di tio na l b ur e auc rat ic ins tit u tion t o a ma n a g e ria l s e rv ic e p ro v id e r a n a c c o u n tin g s y s te m h a s b e e n im p le m e n te d in flu e n ci n g t h e jo b -o rie n te d pl ac e m en t ac tiv it ie s and t he pla c e m ent prof es s ional s. T h e in tro d u ct io n o f co n tro llin g , m a n a g e m e n t b y ob jec tiv es , c om put er-s upp o rted pla c em ent ac tiv itie s , s e rv ic e o rie n ta ti o n , c u s to m e r s e g m e n ta ti o n , a n d ac tio n program s are ty pi c a l feat ures o f an a dm in is tra tiv e m a n a g e ri a l o rg a n iz a tion t h a t fo llo w s b u s in e s s rout in es to in c reas e e ffic ienc y and form al rat ional iz a tion in the era o f neo -lib e rali s m . U nd er th e new regi m e the w ork of the pl ac em e nt pe rs o nn el is s tr u c tu re d d iff e re n tly : O n th e o n e h a n d th e jo b p la c e m e n t prof es s ional s are la bo ur m ark et ex pert s w ith a n ex ten d ed s c o p e of a c tio n . In c ou n s e llin g in ter v ie w s t h e jo b pl a c em ent of fic ers int er ac t w ith job s e ek ers an d pr ov id e ad v ic e a n d m o n it o r th e in d iv id ua l b eh a v io ur of job s eek ers . O n t he o th er hand a ll d ec is io n s of th e p la c e m e n t p ro fe s s io n a ls a re c h e c k e d b y a c lo s e me s h e d a c c o u n tin g s y s te m a n d r e v is e d if th e y c o n tra di c t the orga ni z a tion al bus in es s logi c . T o da y , t he s e prof es s ional s em erge as „t ran s parent job p lac em en t of fic er s “, a n d th ei r a u th o rit y a n d e x p e rt s ta tu s is ca lle d in to q u e st io n b e ca u se o f co n flict in g r e la tio ns bet w ee n prof es s ional and m a nag e ria l int eres ts . T he pl ac e m en t prof es s ional s ar e ex pos e d to a s y s tem at ic s e lf-c o n tr o l w h ic h a s s e s s e s th e c o u n s e llin g a n d t h e pl ac e m en t of jo b s eek e rs not onl y by t e c hni c a l a nd prof es s iona l c rit eria , bu t al w a y s b y t he s u c c es s o f sp e ci fic s tr a te g ie s a lo n g th e in te rn a l o rg a n iza tio n al ac c o u n tin g s ys te m . T h e c on tr ad ic to ry ef fe c ts o f ex tens iv e ac c o unt ing p ra c tic es on jo b-p la c em ent of fic ers a nd the o rg anis at ion w e w ill s h ow in o ur pa p e r. Pr o fe s si o n a l m o b ili ty f ro m F ran c e to Qu e b e c: u n d er s ta n d in g th e ro le an d p er ti n en ce o f m u tu al re c o g n it io n a rra n g e m e n ts Je an -L uc B éd ar d, T É LU Q - U nive rsi té d u Q ué be c an d L uc ie R og er, U niv er sit é du Q uébec Mu tu a l r e c o g n itio n a rr a n g e me n ts ( MRA s ) b e twe e n F ra n ce a n d Q u e b e c a re g o v e rn e d , in Q u e b e c , b y th e regulat or y b odie s that o v ers ee qua lit y of prof es s io na ls ’ s erv ic es . T hes e pro fes s ional o rd ers ha v e res po ns ibilit ies o v er ini tial c e rti fic a tion , s k ill s r e c o g n iti o n a n d o n g o in g m a in te n a n c e o f b e n c h m a rk q ualit y st a n d a rd s o f p ro fe ssi o n a l p ra ct ice . O n ce co n cl u d e d , e a c h M R A h a s t h e n b e e n im p le m e n te d th ro u g h regulat ion s that de fine eli g ib ilit y and s pec ific s c enari os of c o m p le m en ta ry trai ni n g and/ o r s uc c es s ful
