Images of Europe : a glance from the periphery

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EUI

WORKING

PAPERS

IN POLITICAL AND

SOCIAL SCIENCES

E U I W orking Paper SPS N o . 9 4 /8

Images o f Europe:

A Glance from die Periphery

R

oumenDaskalov

20 JR

European University Institute, Florence

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EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE, FLORENCE

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

EUI Working Paper SPS No. 94/8

Images of Europe:

A Glance from the Periphery

ROUMEN DASKALOV

BADIA FIESOLANA, SAN DOMENICO (FI)

WP 3 S 0

EUR

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All rights reserved.

No part of this paper may be reproduced in any form

without permission of the author.

© Roumen Daskalov

Printed in Italy in July 1994

European University Institute

Badia Fiesolana

I - 50016 San Domenico (FI)

Italy

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IMAGES OF EUROPE: A GLANCE FROM THE PERIPHERY

Roum en Daskalov

T he p u r p o s e o f th is p a p e r is to s tu d y th e im a g es o f E u ro p e in B u lg a ria from th e m id n in e te e n th c e n tu r y o n w a rd s a n d th e a t titu d e s a s s o c ia te d w ith t h i s . 1 I a m w ell a w a re o f th e d ifficu lties a n d lim ita tio n s w h ic h u n d e r l i e r e s e a r c h o n s o m e t h i n g a s v a g u e a s " im a g e s " (or " r e p r e s e n ta tio n s " ).2 The v ery n o tio n of im age is p ro b le m a tic .3 T hen a s in h isto ric a l re s e a r c h in gen eral, o n e h a s to rely on availab le w ritte n re c o rd s o f v a rio u s s o rts : th e p re s s , sc h o la rly o r p o p u la ris in g m a te ria ls , lite ra ry criticism a n d e s sa y s, tra v e lle rs' a c c o u n ts a n d m em oirs, a n d even w o rk s of fiction. T h is c o r p u s of d o c u m e n ts , ex te n d in g over s u c h a lo n g perio d of tim e co u ld n o t how ever b e s tu d ie d th o ro u g h ly , o r su b je c te d to s u c h tim e c o n s u m in g m e th o d s a s c o n te n t-a n a ly sis. W hile I hav e s e a rc h e d th o ro u g h ly th ro u g h th e te x ts of th e period of (n ational) "Revival", it w as n o t p o ssib le to do so for th e p e r io d s t h a t follow ed b e c a u s e o f th e p r a c tic a lly in e x h a u s tib le bo d y of m a te ria ls . F or th e s e p e rio d s I h a d to se le c t som e te x ts, g u id e d b y m y ju d g e m e n t of th e ir im p o rta n c e . M ost o f th e s e w ere w ritte n b y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s of th e B u lg a ria n "in tellig en tsia ", t h a t is th e s t r a t a of (com paratively) w ell-e d u c a te d people, c o n s titu tin g th e m se lv e s a s th e c u ltu r a l a n d political elites. T h ese people w ere often e d u c a te d a b ro a d a n d w ere u s u a lly w ell-tra v elled ; a lso , th e y w ere s tro n g ly in te r e s te d in p o lit ic s .4 T h u s it is r e a s o n a b le to s u p p o s e th a t th e r e p r e s e n ta tio n s of

1 T h e a u th o r , b e in g a B u lg a r ia n h im s e lf, is in th e r a t h e r p e c u lia r p o s itio n o f b e in g p e r h a p s m o re p e rc e p tiv e to so m e o f th e i s s u e s r a is e d , w h ile for th e s a m e r e a s o n h e is p e r h a p s n o t a b le to d is ta n c e h im s e lf e n o u g h fro m th e o b jec t o f th e r e s e a r c h . F o r a n y b o d y in t h is s itu a t i o n r e s e a r c h m e a n s w o rk in g o n th e ir o w n p r e s u p p o s itio n s a t th e s a m e tim e a s w o rk in g a g a in s t th e ir b ia s e s .

2 It g o e s w it h o u t s a y in g t h a t th e r e is n o p o s s ib ility o f u s i n g s y s te m a tic so c io lo g ic al q u e s tio n n a ir e s o n p a s t r e a litie s o r o f " r e p r e s e n ta tiv ity ” in a s tr ic t s e n s e . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e it is im p o s s ib le to s p e c u la te o n h o w w id e th e n o tio n s w e re s p r e a d a n d s h a r e d , o r a b o u t t h e ir d is tr ib u tio n a m o n g th e v a r io u s so c ia l s t r a t a of th e B u lg a ria n so ciety .

^ A s R ic h a rd J o h n s o n n o te s , “im a g e ” a s a m e ta p h o r im p lie s s e v e ra l id e a s : 1) of a re fle c tio n , m ir r o r in g a p re -g iv e n , k n o w n r e a lity - a n d t h is a s s o c i a t i o n is e sp e c ia lly u n h a p p y in c u ltu r a l s tu d ie s - 2) a v is u a l d im e n s io n a n d 3) a s “self- im ag e" it h a s th e c o n n o ta tio n o f “s ty le ” a n d s e lf - p re s e n ta tio n , w h ic h lin k s it to q u e s tio n s o f id e n tity a n d its c o n s tr u c tio n . S ee JOHNSON, R. "T o w ard s a C u ltu ra l T h eo ry o f th e N a tio n ”, in: A. G a lem a, B. H e n k e s a n d H. te V ede (eds.), D iffe r e n t

M e a n in g s o f D u tc h n e s s 1 8 7 0 -1 9 4 0 . A m s te rd a m : R odopi, 1 9 9 3 , 1 6 1 -1 6 2 . © The Author(s). European University Institute. version produced by the EUI Library in 2020. Available Open Access on Cadmus, European University Institute Research Repository.

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E u ro p e w ould be b e s t developed a n d e la b o ra te d a m o n g th e m . It Is, in a n y c a se , p rim a rily th is ( ra th e r a m o rp h o u s ) g ro u p o f peo p le t h a t left th e w ritte n re c o rd s w h ich serve a s a b a s e for th is re se a rc h .

F rom th is s o rt of r e s e a r c h one c a n ex p e ct a d e s c rip tio n of a t le a s t som e ty p ic a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f E u ro p e c u r r e n t in B u lg a r ia d u r in g th e n in e te e n th a n d th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , w ith re g a rd to th e ir c o n te n t on th e one h a n d , a n d som e of th e ir g en e ral c h a ra c te ris tic s , p e r ta in in g to th e specific “p ersp e c tiv e " a n d its a s s u m p tio n s , o n th e o th e r.4 5 I will also try to r e v e a l t h e " m o tiv a tio n " t h a t u n d e r l i e s a n d s h a p e s t h e s e r e p r e s e n ta tio n s (e. g. political e x p e c ta tio n s, n a tio n a l id e as, psychological m o tiv es, etc.) a n d fin ally I w ill p ro p o s e so m e h y p o th e s e s a s to th e " fu n c tio n s" o f th e s e n o tio n s for th e so c ie ty w h ic h e n g e n d e r e d a n d s u s ta in e d them .

E u ro p e is m e n tio n e d q u ite fre q u e n tly in th e B u lg a ria n p r e s s d u r in g th e p eriod of national R ev iva l.6 S everal to p ic s a re p ro m in e n t.7 E u ro p e s ta n d s first of all for technology a n d in d u stry . A m ong th e m o d e rn scientific a n d te c h n ic a l d isc o v erie s, se v eral m a d e a g re a t im p re ssio n : elec tric ity 8, th e te le g r a p h 9, c a n n o n s (m ade b y K ru p p )10 a n d above all th e s te a m engine a n d its v a rio u s a p p lic a tio n s a s a locom otive, ste a m -p ro p e lle d sh ip , e t c .11

4 T h e y fo rm e d th e c o re o f t h e n a ti o n a l "revival" a c t i v is ts a n d a f te r th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e in d e p e n d e n t B u lg a r ia n s t a te in 1 8 7 8 th e s e s a m e lite ra te s t r a t a u n d e r to o k th e p o litica l le a d e rs h ip .

5 T h e re v e rs e , t h a t is n o tio n s a b o u t B u lg a ria , w a s s tu d ie d b y Tz. T odorov. He re v e a ls th e e n tir e ly c o n tin g e n t w a y in w h ic h " im a g e s" a b o u t B u lg a r ia w ere p r o d u c e d in F r a n c e d u r in g th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y : t h u s L a m a r tin e 's tra v e l th r o u g h th e O rie n t h a d to se rv e a s a s tim u lu s to h is p o e tic im a g in a tio n a n d to h e lp h im in d e v elo p in g h is ow n p e rs o n a lity . - S ee TODOROV, TZ. “L a B u lg arie e n F r a n c e ,” in : T o d o ro v , Tz. L e s M o ra les d e I'H isto ire. P a ris : B e r n a r d G r a s s e t,

1 9 9 1 , 2 5 -4 0 .

6 T he B u lg a ria n n a tio n a l Revival c o m p ris e s ro u g h ly th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y u p to th e lib e r a tio n fro m th e O tto m a n d o m in a tio n a s a r e s u l t o f th e R u s s ia n - T u r k is h w a r o f 1 8 7 7 -1 8 7 8 . T h e re h a v e b e e n B u lg a ria n n e w s p a p e r s s in c e 1844. T he first n e w s p a p e r - “B u lg a rs k i O re l” - w a s e d ite d b y Iv a n B ogorov in Leipzig.

7 STOIANOV, M. B u lg a r s k a V u z r o z d e n s k a K n iz h n in a . Vol. 2., Sofia, 1959, 154- 156, 1 7 3 -1 7 5 , 1 9 9 -2 0 3 , a s w ell a s its th e m a tic d irec to ry : 9 5 2 -9 5 4 .

® “Z a e le k tric h e s tv o to " , K n ig o v ls h te , 1, 5 (1 8 7 5 ),1 7 .

9 “Z a te le g ra fic h e s k o to iz k u s tv o ”, K n ig o v ls h te , 1, 5 (1875), 2 4 -2 9 ; “V u z d u s h n ii te le g ra f”, Z o r n its a , 2, 2 7 (J u ly 7, 1877).

10 “O tk ritiia i iz n a m e rv a n iia ”, S la v ia n s k o B r a ts tv o , 1, 5 (April 14, 1878). 11 “P a r n a ta m a s h in a ”, Z o r n its a , 1, 7, ( F e b r u a r y 13, 1876); “Z h elez n ii p u t ”,

L iu b o s lo v ie , 1, 1 (1844), 7; “M a k h in a", L iu b o slo v ie , 1, 1 (1844), 7-8; “Is to riia n a

z h e le z n ite p u t i s h t a ”, K n ig o v ls h te , 1, 1 (1874), 2 2 -2 9 , c o n tin u e d in 1, 2 (1874), 1 8 -3 2 ; " Z h e le z n ite p u t i s h t a " , P r a v o , 7, 2 7 (S e p t. 11, 1872); “O p is a n ie n a © The Author(s). European University Institute. version produced by the EUI Library in 2020. Available Open Access on Cadmus, European University Institute Research Repository.

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O ne m a y se e from th e following e a rly d e s c rip tio n h ow c u rio u s , a n d even exotic, th e ste a m en g in e w as to a p p e a r :12

O n e c a lls a s te a m e n g in e th is v e ry w ise in v e n tio n , w h ic h m o v e s , r o t a t e s a n d r u n s b y m e a n s o f s te a m (or sm o k e), w h ic h w o rk s a n d a c t s in th e m a c h in e ; so m e o f y o u m a y h a v e s e e n it o n th e s te a m -p ro p e lle d s h ip .... A tra v e lle r w h o tr a v e r s e d th e s e w a y s o n s u c h a n e n g in e a tt e s t s t h a t w h o ev er e m b a r k s for th e first tim e o n t h is w o n d e rfu l j o u r n e y c a n n e v e r fo rg et t h e e x p e rie n c e s in h is m in d . S a y s th is tra v e lle r: w h e n w e a re slid in g a lo n g th e iro n ra ils a t a s p e e d g r e a te r t h a n t h a t o f th e h o r s e , w e a r e o v e rco m e b y w o n d e r. S o m e o n e m a y a r g u e t h a t a s p e e d a s g r e a t a s t h is w o u ld h in d e r th e b r e a t h in g o f th e tra v e lle r a n d t h a t th e m ig h ty b lo w in g o f th e w in d w o u ld d is tu r b h im a n d will c a u s e h im g re a t d isc o m fo rt. It is th e c o n tra ry , so re g u la r a n d s m o o th is th e r u n n in g o f th e e n g in e a n d a b s o lu te ly free fro m th e b u m p in g w h ic h o c c u rs o n th e u n e v e n c o u n tr y s id e p a th s . It is t h u s h a r d ly p o s s ib le fo r th e tra v e lle r to b eliev e t h a t h e is re a lly m o v in g a t s u c h a s p e e d , a n d o n ly th e n c a n h e b eliev e th a t , w h e n h e m e e ts a n o th e r p e r s o n o n a n o th e r e n g in e a n d a n o th e r lin e o f c a r r ia g e s a n d im m e d ia te ly lo s e s s ig h t o f h im , o n ly t h e n d o e s h e re c o g n is e fo r s u r e t h a t h e is p a s s i n g b y a t s u c h a g r e a t s p e e d . 1^

A m ong th e e a rlie r in v e n tio n s of th e E u ro p e a n civilisatio n sp e c ia l m e n tio n is m a d e of p r in tin g , th e a d v a n c e s in se a -fa rin g , th e im p le m e n ta tio n of m a c h in e s in in d u s try , e tc .14 H ere is a n early a n d so m e w h at naive positive r e s p o n s e to w a rd s th e tech n o lo g ica l p ro g re ss com ing from E u ro p e :

T h e re a re p e o p le , w h o re g re t th e good o ld tim e s ... A s fa r a s I a m c o n c e rn e d , I d o n o t re g re t th e m ... O u r tim e s a r e m u c h b e tte r t h a n k s to th e r a ilr o a d s , th e s te a m - p r o p e lle d v e s s e ls , th e e le c tric te le g ra p h , to a ll t h e s e d e v il's in v e n tio n s . S o m e p e o p le th in k t h a t th e f u tu r e tim e s w ill b e still b e tte r. 13

z h e le z n ite p u tis h ta " , TsarigracLski V e s tn ik , J a n u a r y 2 4 , 1 8 48; SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “I z n a m e r v a n iia i o tk r itiia ”, P c h e llts a , 4 (1 8 7 1 ), r e p rin te d in : SLAVEIKOV, P. R.

S u c h in e n iia v 8 to m a . Voi. 7, S ofia 198 1 , 2 4 0 -1 4 1 .

12 It is h a r d ly p o ss ib le to r e n d e r full ju s tic e to th is d e s c rip tio n in t r a n s la tin g it, a s it is w r itte n in a n a n tiq u a te d a n d q u ite s tr a n g e s o u n d in g la n g u a g e .

13 " M a k h in a ”, 7 -8 .

14 SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “O s n o v ite n a d n e s h n a ta tsiv iliza tsia", M a k e d o n ita . 1, 3 5 , ( J u ly 2 9 ,1 8 6 7 ), re p rin te d in: SLAVEIKOV, P. R. S u c h in e n iia v 8 to m a . Voi. 5, S ofia

1 9 8 0 , 3 9 8 -4 0 1 . 13 M a k h in a , 7-8. © The Author(s). European University Institute. version produced by the EUI Library in 2020. Available Open Access on Cadmus, European University Institute Research Repository.

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E u ro p e (and th e New W orld, th a t is N o rth A m erica) is th e m o th e rla n d of th e n a t u r a l sc ie n c e s a n d m o d e rn e d u c a tio n , o f tr a d e a n d in d u s tr y b a s e d o n v o lu n ta ry a s so c ia tio n o f free in d iv id u a ls .16 E d u c a tio n is often accorded p rim a ry im p o rta n c e in th e im age of E u ro p e a n d it is stro n g ly e x a lte d in th e s p ir it of th e E n lig h te n m e n t. T h is is a t te s te d b y p h r a s e s like: "kno w led g e s t r u c k lik e a lig h tn in g ", “th e lig h t d e fe a te d d a r k n e s s ”17, “sc ien c e co m es dow n to th e s h e p h e r d ’s c a b in a n d m oves a t th e sp e ed of lig h tn in g " 18, a n d th e like. T he a d v a n c e o f E u ro p e in every field, also in freedom , is re la te d to e d u c a tio n a n d “e n lig h te d n e ss" , w hile d e s p o tism is sa id to flo u rish "w hen th e re is no a w a re n e ss , lig h ten e d b y th e b e a m s of e d u c a t i o n " . 19 Q u ite re v e a lin g ly th e w o rd s “e n lig h te n e d E u ro p e " (or "e d u c a te d E urope") b e c a m e a n id io m a tic e x p re s s io n in th e w ritin g s of th e B u lg a ria n revivalist a c tiv ists, a n d of Georgi S. R akovski in p a rtic u la r. Y oung B u lg a ria n s a re offered advice to do th e ir s tu d ie s in E u ro p e in th e following ex a lte d la n g u a g e (revealing a n a n ti- R u s s ia n b ia s, a m o n g o th e r th in g s):

S c ien c e a n d e d u c a tio n a r e n o w h e re so b rig h t a s in th e W est, a s w e h a v e k n o w n for a lo n g tim e ... C iv ilisa tio n is n o w h e re b u t in W e s te rn E u ro p e ; th e re , o n e c a n fin d th e g r e a t s c h o la r ly a n d lite r a r y c e n t r e s w h ic h th r o w lig h t o n th e w h o le w o rld . L et u s t u r n th e r e f o r e to th e lig h t, le t u s w a lk to th e r e d e m p tio n o f civ ilis atio n , w h ic h w ill revive u s a n d le t u s p u t a s id e th e s lu m b e rin g E a s t, w h ic h will b u r y u s in its c o ffin .2d

E u ro p e is fu rth e r c h a r a c te r is e d a s th e h o m e la n d o f th e civil a n d political r ig h ts a n d freed o m s (rig h ts of th e in d iv id u al a n d r ig h ts of th e n atio n ), of

“P o g led v u r k h u is to r ic h e s k o to ra z v itie n a c h e lo v e c h e s tv o to ”, L e to s tr u t, 4 (1 8 7 4 ), 1 5 2 -1 5 5 ; “A m e rik a i E v ro p a " , Z o r n it s a , 2, 6 ( F e b r u a r y 10, 1877). E s p e c ia lly s t r e s s e d a r e B r i t a i n ’s c o n t r i b u t i o n s : “A n g lia i a n g lic h a n ite " ,

C h i t a l i s h t e , 3 , 5 (1 8 7 3 ), 4 7 2 - 4 7 3 , 4 7 6 ; SL A V EIK O V , P. R. “U c h e n ie to i

in d u s t r ii a ta ”, M a k e d o n iia , 4, 2 3 (F e b ru a ry 7, 1870), r e p rin te d in : SLAVEIKOV, P. R. S u c h in e n iia v 8 to m a . Vol. 6, 3 9 1 -3 9 4 .

17 SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “K ak i k o g a s a s p e c h e le n i n o v ite sv obodi", M a k e d o n iia , 1, 3 4 (J u ly 2 2 , 1867), r e p rin te d in: SLAVEIKOV, P. R. S u c h in e n iia v 8 to m a . Vol. 5, 3 9 1 - 3 9 4 .

SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “O b ra z o v a n ie to ”, M a k e d o n iia , 1, 4 9 (N o v em b er 4, 1867), r e p rin te d in : SLAVEIKOV, P. R. S u ch in e n iia v 8 tom a. Vol. 5, 4 4 2 .

19 SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “Z a P ro s v e s h te n ie to " , M a k e d o n iia , 2, 4 1 -4 9 (N ovem ber 4, 1868), r e p rin te d in: SLAVEIKOV, P. R. S S c h in e n iia v 8 to m a . Vol. 6, S ofia, 1980, 142; SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “Z a m n im o s p o s o b n ite m u z h e " , M a k e d o n iia , 4, 5 9 ( J u n e 19, 1870), r e p rin te d in: SLAVEIKOV, P. R. S u c h in e n iia v 8 tom a. Vol. 6, 4 9 4 -4 9 8 . 2 0 “N o v a ta T siv iliz a tsiia ”, T u r ts ia , 5, 2 (M arch 1, 1869).

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r e p r e s e n ta tiv e d em o crac y , o f c o n s titu tio n a lis m a n d th e ru le of law , of civil so c iety a n d p u b lic o pinion, a n d o f local se lf-g o v e rn m e n t.21 Civil a n d p o litica l fre ed o m s a r e explicitly re la te d to th e b o u rg e o is re v o lu tio n s, th e E n g lish a n d esp e c ia lly th e F re n c h re v o lu tio n .22 R e sp ec t for w om en a n d th e a d v a n c e to w a rd s g e n d e r e q u a lity a re sa id to b e a n im p o rta n t fe a tu re o f th e m o d e rn E u ro p e a n civ ilisatio n , in c o n t r a s t to th e c o n te m p tu o u s a ttitu d e to w a rd s w om en in th e “O rien t".23

A lth o u g h q u ite ra re , one m a y e n c o u n te r so cial critic ism in th e v isio n of E u ro p e e x p re sse d in te x ts d a tin g from th e n a tio n a l Revival ep o c h .24 25 S p ecial in te r e s t is to b e fo u n d in th e B u lg a ria n re v iv a list p r e s s to w a rd s th e “n a tio n 's c h a ra c te r" a n d th e m e n ta lity of v a rio u s E u ro p e a n p eo p les.23 T h e “E n g lis h m a n " (a ty p ic a l g e n e r a lis a tio n in t h i s s o r t o f "p e o p le 's

21 ib id .; SLAVEIKOV, P. R. "P re d s ta v ite ls tv o to ", M a k e d o n iia , 1, 4 0 (S e p te m b e r 2, 1867), r e p r in te d in: SLAVEIKOV, P. R. S u c h in e n iia v 8 to m a . Vol. 5 , Sofia, 198 0 . 4 1 4 - 4 1 7 ; “Iz a n g liis k iia z h iv o t”, C h lta lis h te , 2, 19 (1 8 7 2 ), 8 7 4 - 8 8 3 , c o n tin u e d in 2, 2 0 (1 8 7 2 ), 9 1 5 - 9 2 3 ; SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “E d in Pogled", M a k e d o n iia , 4 , 3 ( J a n u a r y 18, 1872), r e p rin te d in; SLAVEIKOV, P. R. S u c h in e n iia u 8 tom a, Vol. 7, S o fia 198 1 , 1 7 5 -1 7 6 .

2 2 SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “N a k u d e n a v a lia t n a ro d ite v E v ro p a? ", M a k e d o n iia , 1, 3 3 ( J u ly 15, 1867), r e p r in te d in: SLAVEIKOV, P. R. S u c h in e n iia u 8 to m a . Vol. 5, 3 8 6 - 3 8 8 ; KARAVELOV, L. “S r u b s k a t a l it e r a t u r a ”, in : KARAVELOV, L. S u b r a n i

S u c h in e n iia . Vol. 6, S ofia 1985, 59; KARAVELOV, L. “D e s e tte m u z h a - ts v e tu t n a

f r e n s k a t a n a t s i a ”, S v o b o d a , 1, 4 2 ( S e p te m b e r 7, 1 8 7 0 ). r e p r i n t e d in; KARAVELOV, L. S ttb ra n i S u c h in e n iia . Vol. 9 , Sofia, 1 986, 2 9 . K arav elo v e x p re s s e d h e re h is c o m m ittm e n t to r e p u b lic a n is m .

2 3 "A n g lia i a n g lic h a n ite " , 4 7 5 - 4 7 6 (T he e d u c a tio n o f w o m e n in B r ita in is h ig h ly p r a is e d h e re .); SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “O s n o v ite n a d n e s h n a t a tsiv fiis a ts ia " ; SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “Z h e n a ta ( V a z h n o s tta i v k r u g u t n a o b s h te s tv o to i n e in o to v u z p ita n ie v B u lg a ria )" , M a k e d o n i i a , 3 , 3 5 ( J u ly 2 6 , 1 8 6 9 ), r e p r i n t e d in: SLAVEIKOV, P. R. S u c h in e n iia v 8 to m a . Vol. 6, S o fia 1 9 8 0 , 2 6 7 -3 7 1 . S lav eik o v a r g u e d h e re in fav o r o f th e e d u c a tio n o f w o m e n a n d t h e ir lib e ra tio n , p o in tin g to E u r o p e a n d th e U. S . A. a s e x a m p le s , a n d h e m e n tio n e d th e m o v e m e n t for e x te n d in g v o tin g r ig h ts to w o m en .

2 4 KARAVELOV, L. " S h to e p r o s v e s h te n ie ? ”, N e z a v is im o s t , 3 , 3 9 ( J u n e 16, 1873), r e p r i n t e d in: KARAVELOV, L. S u b r a n i S u c h in e n iia , Vol. 5 , S o fia 1 9 8 5 , 2 4 7 ; BOTEV, H. “Z h e le z n its ite s a v re d n i z a n a s " , in: BOTEV, H. S u c h in e n iia . Vol. 2 , 1 1 7 -1 1 8 . B otev, w h o w a s in flu e n c e d b y c e r ta in s o c ia lis t id e a s a s s e r t e d t h a t th e E u r o p e a n c iv iliz a tio n a n d p r o g r e s s r e s t u p o n e x p lo ita tio n a n d a s tru g g le b e tw e e n la b o r a n d c a p ita l, a n d w a r n e d t h a t c iv ilis atio n d o e s n o t b rin g o n ly good th in g s . In th e h e a t o f a r g u m e n t, h e e v en w e n t so fa r a s to r e n o u n c e E u r o p e a n “p r o g r e s s " a llto g e th e r .

2 5 "A n g lia i a n g lic h a n ite " , 4 7 2 - 4 7 6 ; “K r a tk i o c h e r t s i v u r k h u p r i r o d a t a i n a r o d ite v E v r o p a ”, C h l ta l i s h t e , 3 , 1 8 7 2 , 7 3 5 -7 4 6 , 7 9 3 - 8 1 6 ( n o te s o n Italy). 8 7 8 - 8 8 6 , 9 9 6 - 1 0 0 4 (n o te s o n S w itz e rla n d ), 1 0 0 4 -1 0 0 9 , 1 1 0 2 - 1 1 1 4 ( n o te s o n B e lg iu m a n d H o llan d ); “H a r a k te r ite n a n e m ts ite i f r a n t s u z i te ”, P ravo, 7, 3 8 -3 9 (1 8 7 2 ). O n th e e m e rg e n c e o f th e c o n c e p ts o f “n a tio n a l c h a r a c te r" a n d “n a tio n a l g e n iu s " see SMITH, A. N a tio n a l Id e n tity . L o n d o n : P e n g u in B o o k s, 1991, 8 4 -8 6 .

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p sy c h o lo g y ”) is d e p ic te d for e x a m p le in th e follow ing w ay: “self-w illed, s tra n g e , in te llig en t, so m e tim e s h e a b a n d o n s h im s e lf to very s tra n g e a n d in d e sc rib a b le revelries b u t so m e tim e s h e is o v e rta k e n b y s u c h a s a d n e s s a n d m e la n c h o ly t h a t h e e ith e r s e ts fo rth on tra v e l in w h a te v e r d irection, o r c u ts h is th r o a t”.26 S u c h q u a litie s a n d tr a its a re a sc rib e d to th e E ng lish n a tio n a s h a u g h tin e s s , c o s m o p o lita n ism a n d love for tra v e l all over th e w orld, fo rm a lism a n d c e re m o n ia lity , a p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith d ig n ity a n d a p p e a r a n c e s , a s w ell a s a s tr o n g lo y a lty to tr a d itio n s , a n d a s tr ic t a d h e re n c e to th e la w s.27 The Italian s, on th e o th e r h a n d , are d escrib ed a s religious, s u p e rs titio u s , brave, c o m p a ssio n a te , co m m u n icativ e, h o sp itab le , jo y o u s a n d poetical, stro n g ly em o tio n a l a n d im aginative, p o sse ssin g a very k e e n feeling for th e b e a u tifu l, a n d a p a s s io n for life a n d festiv itie s in p u blic: th e y love th e ir h o m e la n d te n d erly , a n d a re co m m itted to freedom a n d in d e p en d e n ce . As negative q u a litie s of th e irs , frivolity, ea sy irritab ility a n d rev e n g efu ln ess, a s well a s a c e rta in p ro p e n s ity for te llin g lies a n d for p erfid y a re lis te d .28 In h a rm o n y w ith th e n a tio n a lis t w orld view, w h ich a s s e r ts its e lf in th e B u lg a ria n re v iv a list te x ts , th e w orld is divided in to n a tio n s , e a c h one h av in g a sp e cia l role to play, a n d a sp e cia l m issio n to fulfil. T h u s w hile Italy is conceived a s a la n d of poetry, sc u lp tu re , p a in tin g a n d a rc h ite c tu re , of a r t in g en e ral, S p a in h a s c o n trib u te d to th e discovery a n d co lo n isa tio n of th e New W orld, h u m a n r ig h ts h av e b e e n p ro cla im e d m o s t im p re ssiv e ly in F ra n c e , B rita in h a s a s s e r te d its e lf a s a c o u n try of in d u s tr y a n d co m m erce, G erm a n y is k n o w n for its sc ien c e, a n d R u s s ia h a s a civilising m issio n in A sia.29

Very often a n d q u ite typically, E u ro p e is c o n tra s te d to th e E a s t - A sia a n d first o f all to th e O tto m a n e m p ire .30 E u ro p e s ta n d s in th is o p p o sitio n for “d e v e lo p m e n t”, “p r o g r e s s ”, e n lig h te n m e n t a n d fre ed o m , w h ile T u rk e y

2 6 “A n g lia i a n g lic h a n ite ”, 4 7 5 . 2 7 ib id , 4 7 4 -4 7 5 .

2 ® “K ra tk i o c h e rtz i v u r k h u p r ir o d a ta i n a r o d ite v E v ro p a ”, 7 4 5 -7 4 6 , 7 9 4 -8 0 0 . 2 9 ib id ; KARAVELOV, L. “E v ro p e is k ite n a ts ii i T u r ts ia ”, L ib e rta tia , A pril 6, 1871, r e p rin te d in : KARAVELOV, L. S u b r a n i S u c h in e n iia , Vol. 8, 4 5 9 -4 6 0 ; SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “N a ro d n o P ro s v e s h te n ie ”, M a k e d o n ia , 5, 51 a n d 5 2 (D ecem b er 2 0 a n d 28,

1 8 7 1 ), c o n ti n u e d in M a k e d o n i i a , 6, 2 a n d 4 ( J a n u a r y 10 a n d 2 4 , 1872), r e p rin te d in SLAVEIKOV, P. R. S u c h in e n iia v 8 to m a , Vol. 7, S ofia 1981, 1 5 5 -1 5 8 . 3 0 O n e s h o u ld n o te t h a t for th e B u lg a ria n in te llig e n ts ia th e E u r o p e a n te rrito rie s o f th e O tto m a n e m p ire , h e n c e th e B u lg a r ia n te r r ito rie s th e m s e lv e s , s e e m to b e e x c lu d e d fro m t h e n o tio n o f " E u r o p e ”. E u r o p e in t h i s g e o p o litic a l s e n s e in c lu d e s t h e n o n ly th e W e s te rn a n d C e n tra l p a r ts . O n th e o th e r h a n d , w h e n th e y s p e a k a b o u t c h a s in g th e O tto m a n s a w a y fro m E u ro p e , th e B u lg a r ia n n a tio n a l le a d e rs m e a n E u ro p e in its g e o g ra p h ic a l b o u n d a r ie s . © The Author(s). European University Institute. version produced by the EUI Library in 2020. Available Open Access on Cadmus, European University Institute Research Repository.

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(an d A sia in general) s ta n d for b a c k w a rd n e s s (an d even to ta l in a b ility to p ro g re ss), s u b ju g a tio n of th e p e o p le s a n d d e s p o tis m , s u p e r s titio n a n d re lig io u s fa n a tism , th e c o rru p tio n of th e m o e u rs (e. g. th e poliginy of th e h a r e m s a n d th e h a re m e d u c a tio n o f th e c h ild re n ), etc. The O tto m a n s ' in v a s io n s in E u ro p e a re s e e n a s a n in tr u s io n o f a n a lie n b o d y in to E u ro p e a n c iv ilis a tio n a n d c u ltu r e ; a c c o rd in g to th e B u lg a r ia n Revival a c tiv is ts th e O tto m a n T u rk s hav e to b e expelled from E u ro p e b a c k in to A sia - a te rm w ith a stro n g ly n egative v alu e c o n n o ta tio n in th is u sa g e. The o p p o sitio n E u ro p e /A s ia (O c c id e n t/O rie n t) is s tr e s s e d w ith g r e a te s t force b y th e B u lg a ria n p o et a n d n a tio n a l re v o lu tio n ary H risto Botev. He re p e a ts a g a in a n d a g a in in different c o n te x ts a n d on v a rio u s o cc asio n s th ro u g h th e m o s t vivid a n d d r a s tic la n g u a g e th a t O tto m a n T u rk e y is n o t c a p a b le of re fo rm in g itself, t h a t it m u s t b e c h a s e d a w a y from E u ro p e in to A sia, w h e re it b elo n g s. B otev c a lls (O tto m a n ) T u rk e y th e “E u ro p e a n C h in a ”, th e “p la g u e o f c o n te m p o r a r y E u r o p e ”31, "th e ill m a n ", “th e E u ro p e a n C a sh m e re " , “th e evil o n c e tr a n s p o r te d from A sia in to E u ro p e ”32, “th e b a r b a r ia n s from A sia"33, “th e E u ro p e a n u lc er"34, "the A sia n d u n g h ill in E u ro p e "; h e s p e a k s a b o u t th e " T u rk is h d e s p o tis m in E u ro p e " 35 a n d a r g u e s t h a t th e T u rk is h e m p ire m u s t b e c o n d e m n e d b y th e civ ilised w orld a n d th ro w n "to th e b o tto m of A sia"36. A sim ila r a n tith e s is is m ad e b y a n o th e r fa m o u s B u lg a ria n R evivalist - L iu b e n K aravelov - a m a n of le tte rs a n d a n a tio n a l rev o lu tio n ary .37

3 1 BOTEV, H. “N a ro d u t v c h e ra , d n e s , u t r e ”, in: B otev, H. S u c h in e n iia . Vol. 2, S o fia 1 9 8 6 ,1 5 .

3 2 BOTEV, H. “Iz to c h n iia t v u p ro s lez h i n a p le s h tite n a b u lg a r s k iia n a r o d ', in: B otev, H. S u c h in e n iia , Vol. 2, 5 3 -5 4 .

3 3 BOTEV, H. “T u r ts ia o tiv a k u m p ro p a d a n e " , in: B otev, H. S u c h in e n iia , Vol. 2, 84.

3 4 BOTEV, H. “B u lg a rs k iia t n a ro d tria b v a s a m ic h u k d a p o tu r s i s v o b o d a ta s i”, in: B otev, H. SiSchinenlia, Vol. 2, 87.

3 5 BOTEV, H. “V u n s h n o p o litic h e s k i p re g le d ”, in: B otev, H. S u c h in e n iia . Vol. 2, 3 9 3 , 4 1 7 .

3 6 B otev, H. “P a k p re o b ra z o v a n iia n a d u m i, p a k re fo rm i n a k n ig a ”. in : B otev, H.

S u c h in e n iia . Vol. 2, 2 4 6 .

3 3 * * * 7 KARAVELOV, L. “N iakolko d u m i do b r a ta R. z a svoe o p ra v d a n ie " , in: K aravelov, L. S u b r a n i S u c h in e n iia . Vol. 7, S o fia 1 9 8 5 , 6 1 ; KARAVELOV, L. "Bez o ru z h ie n ia m a s p a s e n i e ”, in : K arav elo v , L. S u b r a n i S u c h in e n iia , Vol. 7, 2 1 5 (O tto m a n T u r k e y is c a lle d h e r e a “t h o r n " t h a t m u s t b e c le a r e d a w a y fro m E u ro p e ); KARAVELOV, L. “R e v o liu ts ia , re v o liu ts ia , i k o lk o to s e m o z h e p o -s k o ro " , in: K aravelov, L. S u b r a n i S u c h in e n iia . Vol. 7, 3 0 2 . (O tto m a n T u rk e y is c a lle d h e re a “p a tc h w o r k o n th e E u r o p e a n c lo th e s"; “A s ia n f a n a tis m ” a n d "A sian im m o b ility " a r e a tt r i b u t e d to it); KARAVELOV, L. “I s to r ic h e s k o to p r a v o e i s m e s h n o . i b e z p o m o s h tn o " , N e z a v is im o s t, 3, 3 4 (M ay 12, 1873), r e p rin te d in: KARAVELOV, L. S u b r a n i S u c h in e n iia . Vol. 9, S ofia, 1986, 3 1 7 ; KARAVELOV. L. “R u s k i v e s tn its i

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It is q u ite c le a r w h a t g e n e ra te s th e o p p o sitio n b etw e en E u ro p e a n d A sia (th e O tto m a n em p ire in p a r tic u la r) , a n d w h a t m a k e s th e c o n t r a s t so s h a rp . B u t th e sa m e striv in g for a n a tio n a l lib e ra tio n , w h ich d e te rm in e s th e vision of th e B u lg arian n a tio n a lis t ac tiv ists a t th e tim e, also in tro d u c e s a c e rta in am b iv alen ce in th e a ttitu d e to w a rd s E u ro p e . To th e e x te n t th a t E u ro p e (th a t is th e E u ro p e a n “g re a t pow ers") d efe n d ed th e in te g rity of th e O tto m a n e m p ire a n d th e s ta tu s - q u o , th e B u lg a ria n n a tio n a l le a d e rs often a c c u s e d it of s u p p o r tin g serfd o m a n d d e s p o tism o n th e B a lk a n s. K aravelov's w o rd s m a y b e cited here:

W h a t a b o u t e n lig h te n e d E u r o p e ? W h a t a b o u t th e h ig h ly p r a is e d E u r o p e a n c iv ilis atio n ? W h at a b o u t th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , s o o ften c ite d b y th e “b en ig n ly - m in d e d p e r s o n s " ? E n lig h te n e d E u r o p e k in d ly m e e ts th e P e r s ia n s a v a g e a n d e n jo y s h is d ia m o n d s ...3®

A n o th er fa m o u s B u lg a ria n n a tio n a l le a d e r - G eorgi S a v a R akovski - also re b u k e s E u ro p e for its indifference:

T he e n lig h te n e d w o rld o f E u r o p e , w h ic h tr ie s to in tr o d u c e h u m a n r ig h ts in to th e A frica n a n d o th e r d e s e r ts , d o e s n o t a t th e s a m e tim e p a y a n y a tt e n ti o n to m o re t h a n six m illio n B u lg a r ia n s , w h o h a v e s u ffe re d m o re evil fro m th e G re ek clergy, th a n th e su ffe rin g s o f th e b la c k s in Africa.3 9

The B u lg a ria n revival a c tiv ists a n d n a tio n a l le a d e rs w ere w ell aw are of th e p o litica l in te r e s ts , e n ta n g le d in th e so -ca lle d “E a s te r n q u e stio n ", t h a t is th e c o n tro v e rsy b etw e en W e ste rn E u ro p e a n d R u s s ia for d o m in a tio n over th e B o s p h o ru s, a n d th e fea r of th e E u ro p e a n “g re a t p o w ers” from a p a n - S lav e x p a n sio n .40 I sh a ll n o t p u r s u e th is line fu rth e r b u t p roceed to som e g en eral o b se rv a tio n s in ste a d .

z a t u r s k a t a im p e rila " , N e z a v i s i m o s t , 3 , 3 9 ( J u n e 16, 1 8 7 2 ), r e p r i n t e d in : KARAVELOV, L. S fib r a vi S ù c h in e n iia . Voi. 8, 138.

3 8 KARAVELOV. L. "V o s m a n s k a ta im p e rila n e s u s h te s v u v a n i p r a v o s u d ie , n i s p r a v e d l i v o s t ”, N e z a v i s i m o s t , 3 , 5 0 ( S e p te m b e r 1, 1 8 7 3 ), r e p r i n t e d in: KARAVELOV, L. Sfibrarli S ù ch in e n iia . Voi. 8, 1 7 9 -1 8 0 .

3 9 RAKOVSKI, G. “S la v a b o g u , c h e i”, in: R ak o v sk i, G. S ù c h in e n iia , Voi. 2, S ofia 1 9 8 3 , 1 2 1 -1 2 2 .

4 9 KARAVELOV. L. “V o s m a n s k a ta im p e rila n e s u s h te s tv u v a n i p ra v o s u d ie , n i s p r a v e d l i v o s t " , 1 8 2 ; KARAVELOV, L. “M n o z h e s tv o v e s t n l t s i g o v o ria t, c h e v o s to c h n iia t v u p ro s s h te se r e s h i tv u rd e sk o ro ", N e z a v is im o s t, 3 , 4 6 (A u g u st 4,

1873), r e p rin te d in: KARAVELOV, L. S fib ra n i S ù c h in e n iia . Voi. 9 , S ofia, 198 6 ,

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T he “im age" of E u ro p e d u rin g th e (natio n al) Revival ep o c h w a s form ed b y a n u m b e r of to p o i. It w a s k n o w n in B u lg a ria n so c ie ty (at le a s t b y its lite ra te s tr a ta ) a s th e b irth p la c e of ad v a n c e d tech n o lo g y a n d in d u s try , of e d u c a tio n a n d e n lig h te n m e n t, o f i n d u s t r y a n d co m m e rc e , o f m a te r ia l w ell-being a n d ra tio n a l social o rg an isa tio n , o f civil a n d political r ig h ts a n d fre e d o m s.

T he m o re o r le s s d if fe r e n tia te d k n o w le d g e o f p a r t i c u l a r E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s c o e x is te d w ith a n o v e ra ll (u n ified ) im a g e o f E u ro p e . An im p o r ta n t q u e s tio n to b e a s k e d is w h a t g e n e ra te d th e u n ity of E u ro p e for th e B u lg a ria n s in th is ep o c h ? The m o re obvious p o litica l r e a s o n s will be liste d first. W h a t is decisive h e re a re th e ex p e c ta tio n s a n d c a lc u la tio n s of th e B u lg a ria n revival a c tiv is ts for “solving th e E a s te r n q u e stio n ". T hose B u lg a ria n n a tio n a l a c tiv is ts in p a r tic u la r w ho relied o n h e lp from th e “o u ts id e ” co n c eiv ed o f th e s it u a ti o n in th e follow ing w ay: “w e ” (th e B u lg a ria n s) hav e to a ttr a c t th e a tte n tio n of “E u ro p e ” a n d to d e m o n s tr a te to it th a t we a re rip e for freedom , so t h a t it m a y in te rv e n e in o u r defence. E u ro p e is t h u s a s o r t o f collectiv e e n tity a n d it is re fe rre d to a s a n in s t a n c e o f a p p e a l, a k in d o f i n te r n a tio n a l c o u r t o f j u s t i c e . T he d is a p p o in tm e n t w h ic h deriv ed from th e p o litics o f th e E u ro p e a n “g re a t p o w e rs" a n d th e c l a s h e s b e tw e e n R u s s ia a n d T u rk e y e v e n tu a lly re d ire c te d th e e x p e c ta tio n s a n d h o p e s for lib e ra tio n to w a rd s R u s s ia a n d s tre n g th e n e d th e a ttr a c tio n o f its im age (c rea tin g th e "G ra n d fa th e r Ivan" m ythology).

T h e re a r e f u r th e r E n lig h te n m e n t id e a s a n d a s s u m p tio n s in view in g E u ro p e a s a to tality , a s a d istin c tiv e a n d self-sufficient c iv ilisatio n .41 The p re stig e of E u ro p e a s th e en g in e of “developm ent" a n d "p ro g ress" in th e m o s t g e n e ra l s e n s e , “th e " c a r rie r a n d p a c e m a k e r of “civ ilisa tio n " w a s a n c h o r e d in a firm b elief in E n lig h te n m e n t n o tio n s s u c h a s "R eason", “p r o g r e s s ”, “e d u c a t io n ” “k n o w le d g e ”, e tc . T h e re is th e e v o lu tio n a ry

3 5 4 ; KARAVELOV, L. “C h e s tn ite r u s i m is lia t n e d a p o k o ria v a t, a d a o s v o b o d ia t s l a v ia n s k i t e p l e m e n a ”, S v o b o d a , 3, 2 0 (N o v em b er 11, 1 8 7 2 ), r e p r i n t e d in: K A R A V ELO V , L. S u b r a n i S u c h in e n i ia . V oi. 9, 2 7 2 - 2 7 4 ; K A RA V ELO V , L.

“P r e s t o n a s l e d i e t o i t u r s k i t e p a r t i i ”, N e z a v i s i m o s t , 3 , 2 4 (M a rc h 3, 1873). r e p rin te d In; KARAVELOV, L. S u b r a n i S u c h in e n iia . Voi. 9, 2 8 5 .

4 1 “O s n o v ite n a d n e s h n a t a ts iv il i s a ts ia ”; “N o v a ta ts iv iliz a ts ia ”, T u r ts ia , 5, 2 (M a rc h 1, 1869); "Z a ts iv illz a ts iia ta ”, T u r ts ia , 7 (M ay 8 , M ay 15, J u n e 2 6 a n d J u l y 17, 1871); “P o g led v u r k h u is to r ic h e s k o to ra zv itie n a c h e lo v e c h e s tv o to ”. © The Author(s). European University Institute. version produced by the EUI Library in 2020. Available Open Access on Cadmus, European University Institute Research Repository.

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v isio n o f a single p a th of “p r o g re s s ” w ith all n a tio n s m a rc h in g alo n g it a n d fin d in g th e m se lv e s a t d ifferen t p o in ts , th e (West) E u ro p e a n n a tio n s a t th e h e a d of th is developm ent.

It is v a in to s p e c u la te o n e x a c tly how a c c u r a te a n y u n d e r s ta n d in g of E u ro p e w as a t th a t tim e, a lth o u g h a t le a st th e e m in e n t B u lg a ria n n a tio n a l a c tiv is ts a n d p o litica l e lite s of th e Revival p erio d seem to h av e k e p t a close w a tc h o n th e s itu a tio n in E u ro p e a n d h a d fairly good know ledge of it. T hey in fa c t h a d to do th is b e c a u s e of th e ir p o litical e x p e c ta tio n s a n d h o p es. B u t it is n o t th e c la rity of th e ir v isio n or th e c o rre c tn e s s of th e ir u n d e r s ta n d in g of E u ro p e th a t m a tte r m o st of all. The w ay o f seein g it, a n d th e p e c u lia ritie s of th e em erging im age, seem to be m ore significant. The d e s c r ip tio n s o f E u ro p e a n c iv ilis a tio n a n d of th e s e p a r a te E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s s o u n d in th e B u lg a ria n p re s s like new s com ing from far aw ay - n o t so m u c h in th e s e n s e o f g eo g ra p h ic a l (sp atial) d is ta n c e , a s d u e to d if fe r e n c e s a n d d is s im ila r itie s . T he “r e p o r t s ” o n E u ro p e a im a t p re s e n tin g (and p o p u la risin g ) c u rio u s th in g s a n d w ay s o f life. T his feeling of d ifference a n d s tr a n g e n e s s w as n o d o u b t d u e to th e r a th e r differen t c o n d itio n s of life in th e O tto m a n em p ire, c o m p a re d to th e econom ically a d v a n c e d E u r o p e a n c o u n tr ie s ; it w a s a ls o d u e to th e r a t h e r w ea k econom ic a n d c u ltu r a l re la tio n s w ith E u ro p e a t th a t tim e, to th e te c h n ic a l d e fic ie n c ie s of c o m m u n ic a tio n s , etc. The d e s c r ip tio n s of E u ro p e re a d like a tte m p ts a t b rid g in g d ifferen t civ ilisatio n s (O rient a n d O ccident) - a k in d of " a c c u ltu r a tio n ” b y m a k in g k n o w n th e a c h ie v e m e n ts of th e m ore a d v a n ce d W est.42

By a k in d of p a ra d o x th e u n ity o f (th e im a g e of) E u ro p e s e e m s m ore p ro b le m a tic from th e in sid e , w h ere n a tio n a l a n d reg io n a l d iffe ren tia tio n a n d diversity prevail, th a n from th e o u tsid e . T his m ay be p a rtly a ttr ib u te d to th e p e rs p e c tiv is t effect: o b se rv in g from fa r aw ay m a k e s th in g s look r a th e r in d is tin c t a n d b lu rre d . It m a y also b e d u e to th e specific in te r e s ts of th e o u tsid e o b serv er, w ho is in ev itab ly p ro jec tin g h is e x p e c ta tio n s a n d w ish e s in p ro d u c in g th e im age. The c o n c lu sio n I w ish to d ra w from th is “p e rsp e c tiv ism ” is th a t w hoever is a s k in g a b o u t th e “m e a n in g ” of E u ro p e or w a n ts to r e c o n s titu te its sym bolic u n ity sh o u ld ta k e th e a n s w e rs of th e

4 2 T h e v e ry la n g u a g e u s e d in th e d e s c r ip tio n s o f E u ro p e is r a th e r p e c u lia r: a p p r o p ria te w o rd s h a v e to b e in v e n te d a n d n a iv e a n a lo g ie s u s e d in th e a tte m p t to m a k e d i s t a n t t h in g s a n d e x p e r ie n c e s n e a r e r to th e e v e ry d a y life o f th e r e a d in g p u b lic. © The Author(s). European University Institute. version produced by the EUI Library in 2020. Available Open Access on Cadmus, European University Institute Research Repository.

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E u ro p e a n “p e r ip h e rie s ” se rio u sly . A n u n ity m a y b e m o re “visible" from a d is ta n t po in t, th a n from in sid e.

The “in flu e n c e s ’ o f E u ro p e u p o n B u lg a ria n so c iety h a v e b e e n s tu d ie d a t le n g th , s u b s u m e d u n d e r th e te rm “E u r o p e a n is a tio n " . C o n te m p o r a r ie s h av e s e e n th e E u ro p e a n in flu e n ce m a in ly a s a n in tr u s io n of n ew “v o g u es” in to th e d o m e s tic s p h e r e a n d th e tr a d i tio n a l w a y s o f life. A s th e in n o v a tio n s ca m e m o s t fre q u e n tly from F ra n c e - a le a d in g civilising force in E u ro p e of th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y - th e "E u ro p e a n isa tio n " o f B u lg a ria n so c ie ty ca m e to b e k n o w n a s “a lia fra n g a ” vogue, n o tw ith s ta n d in g th e ir o rig in a l s o u rc e , m e a n in g “o n th e F r e n c h ” (m odel). T h u s a ll s o r ts of b o rro w in g s a n d a d a p ta tio n s in th e d o m e stic s p h e re - c lo th e s , u te n s ils , fu rn itu re a n d th e a rra n g e m e n t of th e in te rio r o f th e h o u s e s , hygiene, b u t also c h a n g e s in m e n ta lity a n d b eh a v io u r, s u c h a s new h a b its , new w ays of th in k in g , a n d e s p e c ia lly so m e m u n d a n e m a n n e r s a n d s ty le s , a n d c o rre s p o n d in g fo rm s a n d c e re m o n ie s o f so cial life, e. g. p u b lic le c tu re s , re c e p tio n s , p a r tie s , b a lls, m u s ic a n d d a n c e s d iffe re n t from th e ty p ic al folk o n es, th e a tre -g o in g , etc., c a m e to b e k n o w n a s “a lia fra n g a ”.43 The p r im a r y i n te r e s t in th e p r e s e n t c o n te x t lie s n o t so m u c h in th e in f lu e n c e s th e m s e lv e s , a s in th e r e a c tio n s p ro v o k e d b y th e m , th e a ttitu d e s to w ard s th e E u ro p e a n isa tio n .

O n e c a n d e te c t a s tr o n g tr a d i tio n a l is t (“c o n s e rv a tiv e ") tr e n d , w h ic h a s s u m e s th e form o f a “c ritiq u e of th e vogues". It in te r p r e ts th e in tr u s io n o f th e “vo g u es" a n d th e ir "m o n k ish " im ita tio n a s a c o r r u p tio n of th e m o e u rs a n d a th r e a t to th e m o rals. A u th o rs of th is p e r s u a s io n m a k e u s e of a m o ra listic , edifying to n e , a s in th e follow ing p a s s a g e , w ritte n by P. R. Slaveikov:

T h e m o re w e a d v a n c e in o u r s o -c a lle d c iv ilisin g a n d t in tin g in th e s a m e h u e a s E u r o p e a n d th e m o re w e a ls o le a r n to g e th e r w ith t h e s t u d y o f th e fo re ig n la n g u a g e s , th e sp e c ific life o f th e o ld e r n a tio n s , th e m o re w e c a n se e h o w th e

4 3 T h is g e n u in e " re v o lu tio n in th e v o g u e s ” is a tte s te d , r a th e r iro n ic ally , a n d in a m a n n e r t h a t is d iffic u lt to t r a n s l a t e , b y c o n te m p o r a r ie s lik e D. VOINIKOV, “P re d g o v o r”, in: VOINIKOV, D ., K riv o r a z b r a n a ta ts iv lliz a ts ia , B u k u r e s t, 1871, I; S e e a ls o MIKHAILOVSKI, N. A rticle in: T s a r ig r a d s k i v e s tn ik , N 3 1 3 , 185 7 . A n e x c e lle n t d e s c rip tio n o f th e v a r io u s e x p r e s s io n s o f th e “a lia f r a n g a ” v o g u e (d a te d s in c e th e fifties o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry ) is p ro v id ed b y GENCHEV, N. F r a n ts ia v b u lg a r s k o to d u h o v n o v u z r a z h d a n e . S o fia, 1 9 8 9 , 3 8 4 - 4 1 2 ; G EN C H EV , N. B u lg a r s k a ta k u ltu ra X V -X IX v., Sofia, 1988, 2 5 6 , 2 7 1 -2 7 3 . © The Author(s). European University Institute. Digitised version produced by the EUI Library in 2020. Available Open Access on Cadmus, European University Institute Research Repository.

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s im p lic ity a n d t h e s o b r ie ty t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s e d o u r p r iv a te life b e fo re , a r e v a n is h in g a r o u n d u s . T h e b l in d s tr iv in g to r e s e m b le t h e fo r e ig n e r s a n d to b e c o m e e x a c tly a s t h e y a r e , h a s m a d e u s d is lik e e v e r y th in g o u r s , a n d c o n te m p tu o u s o f o u r o w n w a y s. T h e m o re w e, p re s u m a b ly , a d v a n c e , th e f u r th e r w e m ove a w a y fro m th e life o f o u r f a th e r s a n d fo re fa th e rs , a n d th e n e a r e r w e c o m e to a c a ta s tr o p h e w ith o u t b e in g a w a re o f t h is a n d e v e n in th e fa ls e b e lie f t h a t w e a re r e a c h in g th o s e t h a t w e s e e a h e a d o f u s o n th e p a th o f life... T h e w ish a n d th e d ilig e n c e o f o u r n a ti o n to e d u c a te its e lf, i ts love for e v e ry th in g n ew , w h e n u n a c c o m p a n ie d a s t h i s is b y a n e c e s s a r y s t r i c t r e lig io u s a n d m o r a l in s tr u c tio n , a r e b e c o m in g p rim a rily to o ls o f d is s o lu tio n a n d c o r ru p tio n , in s te a d o f m o ra l im p ro v e m e n t...4 4

P. S lav e lk o v th e n r id ic u le s th e " m o n k ish im ita tio n " o f m o re civilised p e o p le s b y th e y o u n g e r g e n e ra tio n a n d n o te s th a t p eo p le of even "the low est ra n k " h a v e b e e n m is le d in to a p in g th o s e w hom th e y c o n s id e r to s ta n d h ig h e r a n d be b e tte r th a n th em selv es.

E d ify in g m o ra lis tic s ta te m e n ts like th e o n e cited ab o v e seem a t firs t g la n ce to reveal a m erely co n serv ativ e, re tro g ra d e a n d n o sta lg ic a ttitu d e , id e a lisin g th e p a s t. Yet th e y a re p ro v o k ed by a r e a l so c ia l p ro b lem - s u d d e n a n d in te n s e e x p o s u r e to fo re ig n I n flu e n c e s d e s tr o y s th e c o n tin u ity In th e life o f p eo p le, a n d m a y le a d to d e s o rie n ta tio n . The c h a n g e s in h a b i ts a n d c u s to m s a n d th e u n d e r m in in g o f th e v ery f o u n d a tio n s o f th e ( tra d itio n a l) w ay of life th r o u g h th e p r o c e s s of E u ro p e a n isa tio n w ould n o t hav e b e e n felt a s so d a n g e ro u s If th e y w ere n o t s e e n a s a th r e a t to th e n a tio n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s , In p re c ise ly th e p erio d w h e n th is w a s b ein g c re a te d a n d co n so lid a ted . T his p re o c c u p a tio n se em s to b e a t th e ro o t o f all c u ltu r a l c riticism a g a in s t th e "E u ro p e a n isa tio n ". L ittle w o n d e r t h a t th e c ritic is m w a s lo u d e s t a m o n g th o s e B u lg a ria n re v iv a list a c tiv is ts , w ho h a d u n d e r ta k e n th e ta s k of "aw akening" a n d s tre n g th e n in g th e n a tio n a l "co n scio u sn ess". O ne s h o u ld n o te th e p e c u lia r a m b ig u ity a n d in n e r in c o n s is te n c y In th e p o s itio n of m a n y B u lg a ria n

4 4 SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “D n e s h n o to s ü s to i a n ie ”, C h ita lis h te , 3 , 1 (1 8 7 2 ), 3 1 -3 2 (re p r in te d in: SLAVEIKOV, P. R. S B .chineniia. Vol. 7, S o fia 1 9 8 1 , 3 3 0 -3 3 2 . O n e c a n p o in t to a n a lo g o u s w a r n in g s b y D. V oin ik o v , w h o r e fe r s to s o m e m o re a d v a n c e d n e ig h b o u r in g p e o p le s a s n e g a tiv e e x a m p le s : " th e d e m o r a lis a tio n , s p r e a d b y p s e u d o - e d u c a te d p e r s o n s a m o n g th e c o m m o n p e o p le c o n ta m in a te s e v e ry n o b le fe elin g , i n s p ir e d b y th e r e s p e c ta b le folk tr a d i t io n a n d w ip e s o u t e v e ry m o r a l p r e c e p t a n d i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t h a s b e e n i n c u l c a t e d e ith e r in th e sc h o o l o r th e c h u rc h ." - VOINIKOV, D. “P red g o v o r”, II.

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" e n lig h te n e rs” w ho w ere a t o n ce a d m irin g of E u ro p e a n c u ltu r e (th ey w ere often th e m se lv e s e d u c a te d in W e ste rn E u ro p e) a s well a s b ein g w orried b y th e "c o n ta m in a tio n " o f th e peo p le by it, s e n s in g in it a th r e a t to th e “m o r a ls ” a n d th e n a tio n a l “c o n s c io u s n e s s ”. T he s itu a tio n w a s th e m o re a m b ig u o u s d u e to th e fa c t th a t a n y k in d of “p r o g re s s ” w a s ex p e c te d to com e p rec isely from E u ro p e .45

T his a m b ig u o u s a ttitu d e is f u rth e r revealed in th e fact th a t it is seldom or n e v e r th e E u r o p e a n in flu e n c e its e lf th a t is c r itic is e d , b u t r a t h e r its su p e rfic ia l a n d "deform ed" a d a p ta tio n , th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f o n ly th e a p p e a r a n c e s , w ith n o a b s o rp tio n of th e c o n te n ts . In th e v ery te rm "alia franga" (in th e F re n c h m a n n e r), one c a n perceive th e im p lica tio n th a t th e copying of foreign vogues is aw k w ard a n d superficial, a m e re c a ric a tu re of th e im ita te d p a t t e r n . T h u s in th e t h e a t r e p la y " K r iv o r a s b r a n a ta ts iv iliz a ts ia " (in tr a n s l a ti o n : T he M is a p p r o p ria te d C iv ilisa tio n ) D o b ri V oinikov a im s a t s a tir is in g e x a c tly s u c h a n o v e r tu r n e d c o n c e p t o f th e "E u ro p e a n n e ss ", w h e re "the c o n s e q u e n c e is m is ta k e n ly ta k e n to b e th e c a u se , th e reflec tio n to b e th e lig h t itself, a n d th e a p p e a r a n c e to b e th e e s se n c e " , "th e v o g u e is s u b s t i t u t e d for th e c iv ilis a tio n " .46 T h ere a re n u m e ro u s o th e r ex a m p le s of s a tiris in g th e m is u n d e r s ta n d in g of E u ro p e a n civilisation b y a s s u m in g m a n n e r s a n d fash io n s only.47 O ne m a y a s k oneself w h e th e r th e c r itiq u e r e a lly ta r g e te d m e re ly th e “d e fo rm itie s " o f th e civilising in flu e n ce, o r w h e th e r it fea re d th a t a n y in flu e n c e m ig h t s h a tte r t h e g ro w in g n a t i o n a l s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s . G iv e n t h e h ig h a n d u n q u e s tio n a b le p re stig e of E u ro p e , th e only w ay to e x p re s s th e ir c o n c ern

4 5 A s R a y m o n d C rew rig h tly p o in ts o u t, it is b e c a u s e n a tio n a lis m h a s c o n ta in e d “a p ro m is e o f m o d e r n is a tio n ” t h a t th e ideology o f n a tio n a l id e n tity h a d to d e fin e i t s r e la ti o n s h ip to th e c o s m o p o lita n c la im s o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t, lib e ra lis m , etc. T h e r e la tio n s h ip o f n a tio n a l id e n tity to th e la rg e r u n ity o f E u r o p e a n c u ltu r e c o u ld t h u s b e c o m e a v ita l p r a c tic a l a s well a s in te lle c tu a l c o n c e r n in C e n tra l (a n d E a s te r n ) E u ro p e . S ee CREW, R. “T he C o n s tr u c tio n o f N a tio n a l Id e n tity ”, in: B o e r n e r , P. (e d .) C o n c e p ts o j N a tio n a l I d e n ti t y . B a d e n - B a d e n : N o m o s V e rla g s g e s e lls c h a ft, 1 9 8 6 , 3 7 -3 8 .

4 6 VOINIKOV, D. “P re d g o v o r”, I-II. T he p la y its e lf th o u g h is s o m e w h a t sh a llo w , r id ic u lin g t h in g s lik e t h e w e a r in g o f f a s h io n a b le c lo th e s , p a y in g m u n d a n e c o m p l i m e n t s to w o m e n , t h e u s e o f F r e n c h w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s in th e c o n v e rs a tio n s , d a n c in g m o d e r n d a n c e s , e tc . a s a d e fo rm e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e E u r o p e a n c iv ilisatio n .

4 7 KARAVELOV, L. “O tiv a t p a te t a , a se v r u s h t a t g u s k i”, N e z a v i s i m o s t , 4 ,1 3 ( J a n u a r y 12, 1874), r e p r in te d in: KARAVELOV, L. Siib r a n i S H c h in en iia . Vol. 5, S ofia, 198 5 . S la v eik o v 's p o e m "K onteto" a n d h is c o m e d y "M alakov" a s w ell a s R. Z h in z ifo v 's p o e m "N a I n o z e m e ts a " w e re w r i t te n w ith t h e s a m e s a t i r i c a l in te n tio n . © The Author(s). European University Institute. version produced by the EUI Library in 2020. Available Open Access on Cadmus, European University Institute Research Repository.

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w ith th e E u ro p e a n in flu e n c e w a s to la m e n t its deficien t im p lem e n ta tio n . A gain, we find a n in n e r sp lit a n d u n e a s in e s s in a ttitu d e s , a risin g from th e fact th a t “E u ro p e a n n e s s " is d e s ira b le a n d fea re d all a t once, d e sira b le for som e r e a s o n s , w hile feared for o th e rs.

N ot o n ly th e "aping" of th e foreign a t th e e x p e n se of th e n ativ e b u t even t h e s t r i v i n g to w a r d s s o m e s o r t o f u n i v e r s a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s ("c o s m o p o lita n ism ") is s o m e tim e s felt to b e in c o m p a tib le w ith th e n a tio n a l feeling a n d id e n tity . A s o m e w h a t c a s u is t ic c o m p ro m ise w a s a tte m p te d b etw e en th e "values" of th e n a tio n a l a n d th e u n iv e rsa l, a n d also b etw e en th e n a tio n a l goals a n d th e lib e ral d e m o c ra tic o n es, b y affirm ing h o w ev e r th e p r io rity of th e n a tio n a l. H ere is a v e ry c h a r a c t e r is ti c s ta te m e n t of th is kind:

T h e s o -c a lle d c o s m o p o lita n s , t h a t is th o s e w h o a r e a s p ir in g to a n e q u a l civil ru le fo r a ll th e w o rld , h a v e la te ly p r o c la im e d th e m s e lv e s a g a in s t th e love o f th e f a th e r la n d . E v ery go o d m a n c a n n o t b u t w is h for th e p r o s p e r ity o f a n e q u a l civil ru le , b u t i s n 't it too e a rly y e t fo r m a n k in d to a tt e m p t th is le a p a n d w h y do w e h a v e to w a it for th e o u tc o m e o f th e e ffo rts u n d e r ta k e n to t h a t p u rp o s e . B e sid es, w e th in k t h a t in o rd e r to go t h a t fa r, o n e h a s to p a s s f irs t th r o u g h love fo r th e f a th e r la n d a n d for o n e 's o w n p eo p le, n o t th e o th e r w a y r o u n d ; a n d for s u re , th e n h o w m a y h e e x p e rie n c e love for th e w h o le w o rld a n d fo r a ll m e n , w h o h a s n o t le a r n e d to love h is f a th e r la n d a n d h is o w n p eo p le in th e firs t p la c e ? 4 8

C h a ra c te ris tic of th is s ta te m e n t is n o t o nly th e affirm atio n of th e p rio rity o f th e n a tio n a l over th e civil a n d u n iv e rsa l, b u t th e fac t th a t th e s e are e x p e rien c ed a s o p p o sin g a n d sc a rc e ly c o m p a tib le v a lu e s. The s ta te m e n t is rev ealin g th e re fo re of a specific s itu a tio n a n d clim ate of opinion, w here n a tio n a l lib e ratio n is a prio rity ta sk .

T he g a p b e tw e e n th e " c o n s u m e ris t" a s p i r a t i o n s a n d th e e c o n o m ic c a p a c itie s o f th e B u lg a ria n so ciety h a s also b e e n n o te d a long tim e ago. T here is a n a w a re n e s s th a t in th e la c k of a sta b le econom ic b a s e for th e sa tisfa c tio n of c o n s u m e ris t d esire s, th e ir p u r s u it m ay hav e r u in o u s effects:

B e c a u s e th e E u r o p e a n s h a v e th is all a n d live t h a t w ay, so w e s h o u ld , In o rd e r to b e civ ilised p e o p le like th e m , h a v e th e s a m e a n d live in th e s a m e m a n n e r . B u t

4® “D lu z h n o s tta i g r a z h d a n in u t”, C h ita lis h te , 3, 3, (1872), 3 3 5 -3 3 6 .

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th e E u r o p e a n s k n o w h o w to b u ild fa c to rie s a n d p r o d u c e v a r io u s n ic e , s h in y , b e a u tifu l th in g s . W h at re m a in s for u s Is j u s t to b u y th e m a t a v e ry h ig h p ric e a n d to w e a r th e m . A n d t h e n th e y a ls o k n o w h o w to b u ild s te a m -p ro p e lle d s h ip s a n d ra ilro a d s ; for u s , o n th e c o n tra ry , it o n ly re m a in s to p a y to th e m .4 9

B u lg a ria w a s lib e ra te d from th e O tto m a n d o m in a tio n a s a r e s u lt o f th e R u s s ia n - T u rk is h w a r In 1 8 7 7 -1 8 7 8 . T h is fa c t in c re a s e d th e p re stig e of R u s s ia a m o n g b r o a d s t r a t a o f th e B u lg a r ia n so c ie ty in th e y e a r s im m e d ia te ly follow ing th e lib e ra tio n . The b u ild in g o f th e in d e p e n d e n t B u lg a ria n s ta te a n d th e w hole s u b s e q u e n t h isto ry of B u lg aria a re m a rk e d b y th e c o m p e titio n b etw e en se v e ra l p re fe re n c e s a n d o r ie n ta tio n s in th e foreign policy. The p r o -R u s s ia n o rie n ta tio n w a s so o n c o u n te r a c te d b y a p r o - E u r o p e a n one. D ecisive for th e p re v a le n c e o f o n e o r ie n ta tio n or a n o th e r a t a m o st g e n e ra l level w ere s u c h fa c to rs a n d c o n s id e ra tio n s a s th e m ove to w a rd s in d u s tria lis m a n d m o d e rn isa tio n : th e E u ro p e a n s ta te s h a d m u c h m o re to offer in th is re s p e c t th a n R u s sia , th e stra te g ie s for th e so lu tio n of th e "n a tio n a l q u estio n " (especially co n c e rn in g M acedonia), etc. T he c o m p etitio n b e tw e e n th e E u ro p e a n "great pow ers" for in flu e n c e over th e B a lk a n s h a d a s its c o u n te r p a r t th e s p lit in th e p re fe re n c e s o f th e B u lg a ria n p o litical elite s a s to w h ich w as th e m o st s u ita b le ally.49 50 In o rd er to g a in th e s u p p o r t o f th e B u lg a ria n p o litica l e lite s in th e ir fav o u r, th e v a r io u s " g re a t p o w ers" p u r s u e d s u c h s tr a t e g i e s a s o ffe rin g th e m e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r tu n itie s a b ro a d , th e " p r o p a g a n d a ” of th e ir re sp e c tiv e "c u ltu res" in B u lg aria; th e y also ex e rte d a n eco n o m ic in flu e n c e o r d ire c t political p r e s s u r e a t c e rta in m o m e n ts (e. g. on th e eve of th e W orld W ars). T he p r o -E u ro p e a n o rie n ta tio n o f B u lg a ria r e a c h e d its f irs t p e a k d u r in g th e ru le of S tam b o lo v (prim e m in is te r from 1887 to 1893) w ho c a ta ly se d th e m o d e r n is a tio n p r o c e s s e s in th e c o u n try . W ith in th e E u r o p e a n

4 9 VOINIKOV, D. “P re d g o v o r”, I; A lso SLAVEIKOV, P. R. “D e s m e i k a k sm e?",

G a id a , 3 , 7 (April 1, 1866), r e p rin te d in : S lav eik o v , P. R. S u c h in e n iia v 8 to m a .

Vol. 5, S ofia, 1 980, 2 2 9 .

5 0 in a s m a ll a n d c o m p a ra tiv e ly w e a k s t a te s u c h a s B u lg a ria , th e o r ie n ta tio n to w a rd s o n e "g reat pow er" o r a n o th e r h a s a lw ay s b e e n o f p rim a ry im p o rta n c e , a n i s s u e t h a t h a s s tro n g ly d iv id e d th e p o litic a l e lite s a n d s o m e tim e s s e rv e d a s a d e cisiv e d e m a r c a tio n lin e b e tw e e n th e p a r tie s . A lm o st ev ery "g re at pow er" h a d a m o n g th e B u lg a r ia n p o litic a l p a r tie s a n d p o litic ia n s its a d v o c a te s ("phili", e. g. fra n c o p h ili, g e rm a n o p h ili, a n g lo p h ili, ru s s o p h ili) a n d its o p p o n e n ts ("phobi"). It is in te r e s t in g to w h a t e x te n t th e p o litic a l life in a s m a ll s t a te c a n c o n s t it u t e its e lf in o r ie n ta tio n to w a rd s o u ts id e fa c to rs . T he ro o m for in d e p e n d e n t n a tio n a l p o lic ie s w a s r a t h e r r e s tr ic te d u n d e r th e s e c o n d itio n s , a n d a t tim e s it c o n s is te d i n sim p ly c h o o s in g th e "right" ally. All t h is is q u ite ty p ic a l fo r a n in te r n a tio n a l s i t u a t i o n o f c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n n a tio n a lis tic "g re at p o w e rs", e a c h a s p ir in g to b u ild its o w n c o lo n ie s a n d "zo n es o f in te re s t" .