Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia D
IPARTIMENTO DI STUDI LINGUISTICI E CULTURALIC ORSO DI L AUREA M AGISTRALE
LINGUE, CULTURE, COMUNICAZIONE
E XPLORING D UBLIN : TRANSLATION AND URBAN SPACE
E SPLORANDO D UBLINO : TRADUZIONE E SPAZIO URBANO
Prova finale di:
Federica Onorari Relatore:
Prof. Franco Nasi
Correlatore:
Prof. Davide Mazzi
Anno Accademico 2018-2019
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ABSTRACTS
Abstract
Inspired by Sherry Simon’s Cities in translation: intersections of language and memory (2012), this paper sets out to study how translation and urban space interact with each other in Dublin. In fact, due to the historical presence of two languages, i.e. Irish and English, on its territory, Dublin can be regarded as a “city in translation”, just like the cities studied by Simon. Before going into details, the paper provides a brief account of research literature in the field of translation studies that deal with the relationship between geography, space and translation. Then, it analyses the historical reasons behind the coexistence of Irish and English on the island of Ireland, the linguistic results of their contact (Irish English) and the development of policies for the protection of Irish from the foundation of the Irish Free State to the present day. Finally, it focuses on the city of Dublin. After investigating the historical development of the city and the main language spoken by its inhabitants (Dublin English), the study concentrates on spaces and features of the landscape that bear the imprint of the interplay between Irish and English and are related to some examples of translation in a broad sense. Then, it examines translations and translators linked to Dublin and shows how they have been influenced by the city and have contributed to its transformation. Therefore, the paper proves how Dublin’s linguistic and cultural duality is reflected on its landscape and how the urban context itself has affected, and affects, translation activity and creativity.
ii Riassunto
L’elaborato si occupa di studiare l’interazione tra traduzione e spazio urbano a Dublino ispirandosi all’approccio utilizzato da Sherry Simon nel suo libro Cities in translation:
intersections of language and memory (2012). Dublino, infatti, come le città studiate dalla Simon, può essere considerata una “città in traduzione” a causa della storica presenza di due lingue, l’irlandese e l’inglese, sul suo territorio. Prima di entrare nel dettaglio, l’elaborato offre un breve resoconto di alcuni studi, fra cui Cities in translation, condotti negli ultimi anni nell’ambito dei translation studies che mostrano, in diversi modi, il rapporto che esiste tra geografia, spazio e traduzione. Successivamente analizza i fatti storici che hanno portato irlandese e inglese a coesistere in Irlanda, il risultato linguistico della relazione tra le due lingue (Irish English) e l’evoluzione delle politiche per la conservazione dell’irlandese dalla fondazione dello Stato Libero Irlandese ai giorni nostri. Infine, l’attenzione si sposta su Dublino. Dopo una prima parte sull’evoluzione storica della città e sulla lingua principalmente utilizzata dai suoi abitanti, lo studio si concentra su spazi ed elementi del territorio che portano il segno della relazione tra irlandese e inglese e introducono alcuni esempi di traduzione in senso lato. Inoltre prende in esame traduzioni e traduttori legati alla città che hanno contribuito a trasformarla.
L’elaborato mostra quindi come la dualità linguistica e culturale di Dublino si riflette sul suo territorio e come il contesto urbano stesso ha influenzato, e influenza, l’attività traduttiva e la creatività.
iii Resumen
El trabajo se ocupa de estudiar la interacción entre traducción y espacio urbano en Dublín tomando inspiración del enfoque utilizado por Sherry Simon en su libro Cities in translation: intersections of language and memory (2012). De hecho, como las ciudades estudiadas por Simon, Dublín puede considerarse una “ciudad en traducción” debido a la histórica presencia de dos idiomas, el irlandés y el inglés, en su territorio. Antes de profundizar en la ciudad, el trabajo ofrece una exposición breve sobre los estudios realizados en los últimos años en el campo de los translation studies, entre ellos Cities in translation, que muestran de manera diferente la relación que existe entre geografía, espacio y traducción. Posteriormente analiza los hechos históricos que han llevado a la coexistencia del irlandés y el inglés en Irlanda, el resultado lingüístico de la relación entre las dos lenguas (Irish English) y la evolución de las políticas para la conservación del idioma irlandés desde la creación del Estado Libre Irlandés hasta hoy día. Finalmente, el enfoque se concentra en Dublín. Después de una primera parte sobre el desarrollo histórico de la ciudad y la lengua más utilizada por sus habitantes, el estudio focaliza su atención en espacios y elementos del territorio que llevan las huellas de la interacción entre el irlandés y el inglés y están conectados con algunos ejemplos de traducción en sentido lato. Además toma en consideración traducciones y traductores relacionados con la ciudad que han contribuido a transformarla. Por lo tanto, el trabajo muestra como la dualidad lingüística y cultural de Dublín se refleja en su territorio y como el contexto urbano mismo ha influenciado, e influencia, la actividad de traducción y la creatividad.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACTS ... i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... iv
INTRODUCTION ... 1
CHAPTER 1 – A new interest in the connection between translation and geography ... 4
1.1 “Space” in translation studies with a cultural perspective ... 5
1.1.1 Emiliy Apter: the “translation zone” ... 6
1.1.2 Sherry Simon: urban space and linguistic exchange ... 8
1.1.3 Federico Italiano: “the translation of geographies” ... 10
1.2 “Space” in translation studies with a sociological perspective ... 11
1.2.1 Michael Cronin: translation’s role in our world ... 13
1.2.2 Loredana Polezzi: mobility of people and mobility of texts ... 17
1.2.3 Moira Inghilleri: migrants’ lives and translation ... 19
CHAPTER 2 – A “translational island”: the relationship between Irish and English ... 22
2.1 Historical background: how Irish and English came into contact ... 23
2.1.1 First settlements and Christianization: Celtic dialects and Latin ... 23
2.1.2 The Vikings and the Anglo-Normans: Old Norse, French and English .... 26
2.1.3 From the plantation period to the Great Famine: the shift to English ... 29
2.1.4 From the end of the 19th century to our days: the preservation of Irish .... 35
2.2 Development and main features of Irish English ... 40
2.2.1 The origins of Irish-English ... 41
2.2.2 Some features of Irish-English ... 44
2.3 Language policy and planning: from independence to our days ... 47
2.3.1 The attempt of reviving the Irish language ... 48
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2.3.2 From restoration to bilingualism: a change of direction ... 52
2.3.3 The preservation of Irish: recent developments and controversies ... 55
CHAPTER 3 – A city in translation: intersections of language and memory in Dublin ... 61
3.1 Historical and linguistic features of the city ... 64
3.1.1 Dublin: a meeting place for many languages and cultures ... 65
3.1.2 Some characteristics of Dublin English ... 78
3.2 The physical presence of Irish and English around the city ... 87
3.2.1 Street names, signage, and public spaces ... 88
3.2.2 Significant buildings and city spaces ... 92
3.2.3 Plaques, memorials, graves, and graffiti ... 99
3.3 A “double-edged sword”: the activity of translators in Dublin ... 107
3.3.1 Written sources: translations and bilingual editions ... 108
3.3.2 Spoken words: interpreting, theatre, radio and audiovisual content ... 117
3.3.3 Key translators: agents of furthering and distancing ... 123
CONCLUSION... 135
TABLE OF FIGURES ... 137
WORKS CITED ... 143
APPENDIX 1 – Table containing data about Irish speakers taken from
Census Reports ... 163
1
INTRODUCTION
Over the last decades, translation studies have been characterized by a high degree of interdisciplinarity (Munday 2001: 183). For example, a collaboration has taken place with geography and has produced interesting results. It is true that matters of translation and space have always been connected, but recent approaches allow to go deeper into their relationship. In fact, they go beyond the traditional and relatively simplistic metaphor of translation as movement across space. Apart from being limited to certain languages and cultures – the word for “translation” is not etymologically related to the notion of movement in all languages (Grutman 2019) – such spatial metaphor does not always describe current patterns of translation. Different languages often coexist and interact at many levels: schools, offices, small towns, larger cities, etc. This situation of multilingualism is certainly a result of movement, e.g. waves of migration, however, many people permanently settle down in new territories, which makes translation all the more necessary in fixed places. It can also be noticed that the presence of translation in the local is not a novelty. In contexts of colonialism, for example, translation activity has characterized people’s lives within local territories for centuries. Moreover, it is worth observing that translations made in a specific place are a vehicle for memory and thus offer an insight into the geographical, but also historical, social, and ideological context behind them. Not only do translations speak about layers of memory but they also impact on space and shape it so that buildings and other urban features reflect linguistic transformations: changes in soundscape, the imposition of a language over another, the spread of new speeches due to phenomena as migration, and so on (Simon 2019a; 2019b;
cf. Mezei, Simon and Flotow 2014).
One could still wonder why it is so relevant to study translation in relation to a specific space, e.g. a city, given that this activity is now common in a great variety of fields as the globalized world in which we live requires. However, today the risk is that of making broad generalizations, and localism is one of the few weapons against it.
Indeed, the local is currently the place where “differences are articulated, negotiated, contested and defended in relation to the process of history” (Tymoczko 1999: 31-32). In connection with this, on occasion of an international conference on the theme of “space in translation” held at the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia in May 2019, Sherry
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Simon remarked the importance of situating translation in physical locations, e.g. urban spaces, hence acknowledging its intrinsic political nature and complexity (Round table 2019; cf. Niranjana 1992). Various speeches during the conference exemplified the truth of this remark by showing the role of translation in shaping cities’ spaces and cultural lives like in the case of Buenos Aires (Fiorani 2019), L’Aquila (Sofo 2019), Gdańsk/Danzig (Cailleux 2019), and Istanbul (Maraucci 2019); dealing with translational speeches with their origins in multilingual and postcolonial zones (Barbieri 2019; Ivancic 2019); focusing on borders – in particular in the context of migration – as places of interlinguistic interaction and translation as a border itself (Nergaard 2019); and so on.
The wide circulation of these ideas has led to an interest in adopting Simon’s approach to study cities that have historically been divided from a linguistic point of view and bear the imprints of such division. For this reason, the paper intends to show the significance of concentrating on a particular place to give proof of the strong interrelation that exists between urban space and translation. To do so, like Simon (2012; 2019b), we will investigate a specific city which has been divided between two languages for a long time, Dublin, and its relationship with translation. The major focus will be on translational buildings, features of the city, figures, publications, etc. that reflect the interaction and clash between Irish and English and revive memories of a layered past. Stories, images, texts, and biographies will help show the dual nature of the city of Dublin, which is evident in its landscape and soundscape if one stops to contemplate their historical, ideological and linguistic background. The work will thus rely on sources from various disciplines, e.g. history and linguistics, to offer an inclusive account of the topic. Due to its translational nature and linguistic peculiarities, Ireland has been studied in depth by scholars such as Michael Cronin, Maria Tymoczko, and Raymond Hickey among others;
their works have provided the basis for the present paper.
Chapter 1 will provide an overview of literature about the themes of translation, space and geography in order to place Simon’s investigation in a broader background.
The first section will include the ideas of some scholars who, like Simon, have looked at space from a cultural perspective. General reference will be made to those who have contributed to bringing to the fore questions of space and movement in cultural studies;
then, attention will be given to some examples in the field of translation studies, i.e. works by Emily Apter, Sherry Simon, and Federico Italiano. The second section, instead, will deal with translation scholars adopting a more sociological perspective such as Michael Cronin, Loredana Polezzi, and Moira Inghilleri. Their works are particularly relevant
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because they take into account themes which are at the heart of contemporary debates, e.g. migration and globalization.
Chapter 2 will discuss why Ireland can be defined as a “translational island”
(Tymocko and Ireland 2003), which is useful to explain the reasons behind the duality of Dublin before examining it as a “city in translation”. The first section will look at the historical context in which Irish and English came into contact in Ireland and hint at the causes of the translation of the Irish people into English. The second will explore the linguistic consequences of the long-lasting contact between Irish and English, namely the emergence and development of Irish English. It is a variety of English highly influenced by Irish due to the circumstances surrounding the shift from Irish to English and is the majority language of the country. The third will offer some information about language policy and planning in Ireland from the times of independence to the present, which is significant to see how Irish and English still interact and influence the country even though the former is only spoken by a small minority of Irish people.
Finally, Chapter 3 will explore Dublin as a “city in translation” following Simon’s example; the duality of the city and the fruitfulness of this condition will be considered from different points of view. The first section will deal with historical and linguistic features of Dublin that account for the dual nature of the city’s landscape and soundscape.
Then, the second section will concentrate on the physical space of the city. Some images will show where Irish and English still coexist in Dublin – e.g. public signage and memorials – hence revealing strata of history, culture, and language to the contemporary inhabitant or visitor of Dublin. Attention will also be given to buildings and other urban spaces that have mainly been associated to one or the other language, thus intensifying the distance between them and their speaking communities, and others that instead have provided a place for dialogue and creative interaction between the two languages. The third and last section is dedicated to translated texts, bilingual editions, peculiar types of translation – e.g. in the field of drama – and key translators whose activity has been influenced by the duality of the city or has contributed to shaping the city itself.
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CHAPTER 1
A new interest in the connection between translation and geography
As the title Translation and geography – a book by Federico Italiano published in 2016 – clearly shows, over recent years translation studies have increasingly focused on geography and its relationship with translation. Without a doubt, the link between these two concepts is not new, as in most cases different languages are associated with different territories and populations and influence culture, politics, etc. Besides, the term
“translation” itself contains a reference to space as it comes from the Latin verb transferre, which means “to carry over”. In fact, as Homi K. Bhabha reminds us, the etymological sense of translating is “carr[ying] across from one place to another”
(Bassnett 2002: 6; cf. Munday 2016: 8). However, as Italiano observes, it is only through the recent work of scholars such as Sherry Simon, Emily Apter, and Bhabha that the spatial dimension seems to have regained resonance (2016: 3).
One of the reasons why the phenomena involving space are establishing their place in translation studies – for example travel, migration, and globalization – is “the greater sense of fluidity that marks the world we inhabit and the texts being produced at this time” (Bassnett 2011: 78). In fact, the movement of people and the global exchange of information influence our daily life, and impact on the practices of translation and on the ways in which people communicate.
In an attempt to understand what is behind this shift and what are the main theories developed so far, this chapter deals with the different approaches that some scholars have adopted in discussing the themes of translation, space, and geography. First, it will offer an overview of the appearance and the diffusion of the concept of “space”, “zone” in cultural and translation studies. Then, there will be an introduction to some studies which also include a sociological perspective on the relationship between translation and geography.
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1.1 “Space” in translation studies with a cultural perspective
[Literature, geography, and translation] are concerned today with the movements of peoples, and with processes of import and export that are not only commercial but also aesthetic and intellectual. Any study of translation necessarily involves a geographical dimension, and the movement of literatures through translation requires an awareness of changing contexts of textual production (Bassnett 2011:
67).
It is a recognizable fact that geography has always been relevant to translation because translators have worried about how moving texts across borders along centuries.
Nonetheless, as the concepts of space and movement themselves are changing and as a growing number of people with different linguistic backgrounds find themselves living in the same space or working in the same team, also the relationship between the notion of translation and that of geography is evolving. In addition, the spreading interest in cultural products from regions which had remained far from us until now poses new challenges to translation. Through the media, books, films, TV programmes, music, etc.
from distant continents have entered our houses, filling our ears with foreign sounds and images. As a result, over the last decades, cultural studies have broadened their object of research and disciplines such as comparative literature, comparative arts, and postcolonial studies have gained a pivotal role, thus showing a special attention towards “new geographies” (cf. Alvstad, Helgesson and Watson 2011).
In particular, postcolonial studies have brought to light the peculiar processes which take place in those territories where two or more languages coexist, but do not share the same importance and authority because of asymmetrical relations of power that create hierarchies among peoples and their tongues. This has encouraged investigations about the relationship between idioms in zones where they have been into contact for a long time, for example, the cities examined by Simon as we will see. Postcolonial studies still hold much prominence today because, as some intellectuals argue, “despite the formal end of direct control, colonial structures continue to characterize modern power relations in global politics” (Wilkens 2017) and so their effects remain valid. For this reason, they continue to influence other fields and spread their theories and terminology, and we will see some instances of such influence further on.
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Amongst the most noticeable scholars who have given an impulse to cultural studies concerning space and have inspired the intellectuals we will consider in the following subsections are Bhabha, James Clifford, and Mary Louise Pratt. Bhabha, for instance, has perceived a new sense of disorientation in a society which, according to him, is undergoing a moment of change. In this context, he theorizes the existence of “in- between spaces”, interstices in which “intersubjective and collective experiences of nationness, community interest, or cultural value are negotiated” (1994: 2). This means that there are “third spaces”, a geographical albeit abstract concept, where clashing cultural identities can meet and mediate, and people from different backgrounds can circulate and connect (cf. Bhabha 1994: 4-5). Likewise, Clifford observes that our world is not stationary but in constant movement and characterized by connections. Thus, he
“takes travel and its difficult companion, translation, as openings into a complex modernity” (Routes n.d.) and tries to study transcultural phenomena, focusing in particular on travel and translation as the title of his book reveals. Finally, Pratt has defined the notion of “contact zone” from which Apter probably drew inspiration to develop the concept of “translation zone” (cf. Cronin and Simon 2014: 121). The “contact zone” as she intends it is “the space in which peoples geographically and historically separated come into contact with each other and establish ongoing relations, usually involving conditions of coercion, radical inequality, and intractable conflict” (Pratt 1992:
6).
Therefore, we see how significant space and movement have become in cultural studies, and that being so, it is inevitable that translation interacts with them. In fact, where there is contact between different peoples, there is always a need for translation, be it proper or only cultural if the language is the same but the traditions and habits are not.
The following subsections will give an overall idea of the approaches adopted by three relevant and valuable scholars about these themes.
1.1.1 Emiliy Apter: the “translation zone”
As mentioned before, in The Translation Zone, Apter’s conceptualization of “translation zone” seems to recall Pratt’s “contact zone” and is described as
a broad intellectual topography that is neither the property of a single nation, nor an amorphous condition associated with postnationalism, but
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rather a zone of critical engagement that connects the ‘l’ and the ‘n’ of transLation and transNation (Apter 2006: 5).
In the author’s mind, the act of translation entails both love and disruption as it urges people to find a new place in the world surrounding them and to leave the reassuring space of their nation and of their everyday life in order to construct a new and freer self (6). Owing to this characterization of translation, Apter also defines the translation zone as “a military zone governed by the laws of hostility and hospitality, by semantic transfers and treaties” (9), and examines what she calls “language wars”.1 In addition, she investigates the role of the modern technologies of information translation, illustrating some concerns they trigger in our contemporary world, such as the scandals of textual reproduction.
By means of all the topics she covers, Apter primarily aims at extending the boundaries of literary studies (Simon 2013) by assigning translation a central position in a new comparative literature (Apter 2006: 10, 243). Throughout the text, she comments on the results already achieved and the theories advanced in the field of comparative literature studies, and pinpoints their critical issues. Then, she presents some academics who have suggested new methods to resolve such issues.2 Her conclusion is not a fixed new model of comparative literature, but rather – as the author herself states – “some reflections on what happens to philology when it is used to forge a literary comparatism that has no national predicate” (243). What she offers is a remarkable overview of the matter by relying on the work of several scholars, from Edward Said to Jacques Derrida, from Leo Spitzer and Erich Auerbach to Franco Moretti and Alain Badiou, spacing from consolidated studies to more recent and debated ones.
Yet, most noteworthy for our purposes is that in Apter’s work, geography and space hold a place along with culture, literature, and translation. Indeed, referring to
“zone[s] of critical engagement”, she alludes to geographical and cultural areas where a prolific connection between languages occurs (cf. Cronin and Simon 2014: 121). This
1 According to Apter (2006), “language wars” arise where a rivalry between opposed idioms exists, or where minority languages strive not to be wiped out by high status languages, mainly English (139).
Moreover, they also include the cases of mistranslation in war (3). Recently, they have received a boost and acquired considerable relevance in the light of the events of the 9/11, which the author takes as the watershed date from which her research stems (1).
2 See, for example, pp. 42-44.
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means that there is a relation between a geographically defined place – with all its physical, socio-political, ethnic, and cultural characteristics – and linguistic exchange through translation. In fact, it is in determined places where languages meet and require translation, thus leading to conflict or productive effects.
We will see a brief elaboration of this last remark in the following section since Simon, dealing with linguistically divided urban spaces, focuses on similar concepts:
distancing and furthering.
1.1.2 Sherry Simon: urban space and linguistic exchange
By taking a train or a bus or just by walking through any city nowadays, we are confronted with myriads of languages, people from all over the world expressing themselves with sounds which often mean nothing to us. Despite this situation, which is so evident to anyone, scholars have given little attention to language and language contact when dealing with the theme of cities’ identities (Simon 2012: 7). On the contrary, Simon believes that
[t]ranslation is the key to citizenship, to the incorporation of languages into the public sphere. This means seeing multilingual, multi-ethnic urban space as a translation space, where the focus is not on multiplicity but on interaction. Understanding urban space as a translation zone restores language to the picture and offers a corrective to the deafness of much current urban theory (7).
For this reason, in her book, she analyses how the presence of different languages in some cities has shaped them and their citizens. She thinks, in fact, that cities – as spaces – are transformed by phenomena such as the interchange of information, and the movement and interconnection between people (Simon 2012: 8). In the last chapter of the book, Simon builds on this idea and highlights the fact that not only are dual cities “a site of opportunity and danger, of hopeful encounters and disappointed miscommunication”
(159) that “contribut[e] to the redefinition of civic space” (157), but they are also
“territories of the imagination”, from which a rich and modern literature originates (160).
To investigate the various functions of translation and translators in each city, she elaborates on some notions, such as furthering, distancing and third space. Doing so, she tries to assess whether translation acts either as a bridge that makes cultures communicate
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and flourish (16), or as an instrument that aggravate division (13), or even as a sort of rubber used to erase another language (14).
Interestingly, Simon herself suggests in the introduction and in a note to the text that her methodology could be used to study other dual cities, such as
Brussels (today and increasingly francophone city but the object of Flemish desires), [...] Dublin (where Irish is playing an increasingly important symbolic role) [...] and the many other cities that have been suggested to me in the course of my research [...] The key element of definition for me is that the two languages have equal or similar institutional authority in the city. Duality is a distinctive form of multilingualism (161).
In order to put this hope into practice, in 2016, she edited a collection of texts (Speaking memory: how translation shapes city life) centred both on this kind of spaces and on cities that the arrival of newcomers have caused to become multilingual. Such volume shows that other academics have appreciated, adopted, and elaborated on the method she established to study the interaction between geographical – and also historical, political, and social – discourse and the practice of translation. Some anthologized texts3 present sociological perspectives4 besides cultural and historical ones, thus indicating that Simon’s approach has stimulated a diversified and wide response. Consequently, she seems to have succeeded in her desire for “open[ing] a discussion which will extend to a broad range of urban situations of translation” (2012: 9).
Finally, it is obvious that the approach put forward by Simon in Cities in translation cannot be flawless and must entail some risks. For example, as Italiano observes, the choice of texts, translators, features of the city she makes can never be complete and totally unbiased (2016: 10). However, it cannot be denied that she collects ample and solid evidence regarding the contribution of translation in moulding urban space (cf. Henriquez 2014: 699).5 Moreover, at the end of this work and in the 2016
3 For example, see Cronin, Michael (2016) “Digital Dublin: translating the cybercity” in Sherry Simon (ed) Speaking memory: how translation shapes city life, Montreal, McGill-Queen’s University Press, pp. 103- 116.
4 We will deal with these perspectives in section 1.2.
5 For example, to talk about Barcelona, she introduces the relationship between Castilian and Catalan, the implications of writing in one or the other, and then novels that actually present the language policy of the
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volume, she recognizes that the changes the world is experiencing are modifying dual cities as well; indeed, they are increasingly multilingual and globalized. Hence, she shows how stimulating the study of translation and geography can be and opens the way to potential future research on such themes.
1.1.3 Federico Italiano: “the translation of geographies”
The subject of Italiano’s book Translation and geography partly moves away from those considered so far. As he states in the introduction to this book, he wants to analyse “the translation of geographies” (2016: 4). Particularly, the ways in which literary Western geographical imaginations have undergone translation between various forms, ages, and languages (4). To do so, he delves into seven literary texts from a variety of historical periods and brings out the spatial negotiations at the basis of these works (van Doorslaer 2018: 464). All these texts contain what we can define as “geopoetic features”,6 which make them relevant to investigate from a viewpoint that has regard to geographical elements.
Throughout the book, he takes into account different types of translation, not only interlingual translation but also intersemiotic translation, and transmediation, which Italiano defines as
a process of transfer between media by which the semiotic and medial traces of the transmediated medium are not merely relics, lacking in significance of value per se, but rather the essential features of the process (2016: 36).
For instance, he shows how some literary works can be seen as a translation of the cartographic products of their time and how the geographical imaginations of an era can
city through their plot and characters, e.g. El amante bilingüe by Juan Marsé. She also cites books in which translation is a central theme, like those by Carme Riera, who was both a writer and a translator, and talks about a peculiar feature of the city that allowed communication between languages, the passatges. And this is just a minor part of the evidence she gathers to examine Barcelona as a “city in translation”.
6 “With the concept ‘Geopoetics’, we mean that particularly geographical consciousness, that territorial knowledge which is individualization of the nexus Man - Earth, as it emerges from a literary texts [sic], and that transcends every limiting frame of perception, surpassing the phenomenological borders of the
‘Anschauungsraum’. [...]. Each literary text compound of elements, which have reference to that prefixoid
‘geo-’, is consequently susceptible to a geopoetic interpretation” (Italiano 2008).
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be turned into a text. Further, he deals with phenomena such as the translation of travel accounts that alter the orientation of the geopoetics they embody, and the transmediation of travel records into maps among others.
A clear example of Italiano’s own approach to the study of the interaction between space and translation is the analysis of the Orlando Furioso (1516) by Ludovico Ariosto in chapter 2. Together with other considerations, he observes that the description of Astolfo’s journey from India to England probably hinges on two cartographic representations of the time: the oval planisphere (1507-8) by Francesco Rosselli and the Universalis cosmographia (1507) by Martin Waldseemüller. According to the author, this is an instance of trasmediation, because Ariosto translated cartographic projections into another medium, poetic language (Italiano 2016: 33).
Therefore, Italiano takes part into this new trajectory of translation studies that intertwines with geographic discourse but offers a distinct kind of procedure. In the future, other scholars might extend it to different books and documents dealing with spatial imaginations. A possible application may be the examination of Orientalist texts – both fictional and scientific – that, as Edward Said argues in Orientalism, often present imagined geographies about the Orient. Their representation of an Other reality could in fact be interpreted as a translation of the real East into a fictional Orient, a transformation of a set of tropes and images of a remote land which have a place in our Western mind into words.
1.2 “Space” in translation studies with a sociological perspective
Translation takes place not just when words move on their own, but also, and mostly, when people move into new social and linguistic settings. Additionally, people have a tendency to keep moving, to occupy multiple places and spaces at once, to be part of different yet connected communities (Polezzi 2012: 348).
Connecting with the previous reflections on the changes of today’s world, we can observe that geography and space are not only influencing studies dealing with translation and culture but also those adopting a sociological perspective since society itself is deeply affected by such transformations. As a matter of fact, travelling is getting easier, faster, and cheaper and the phenomenon of migration – even though it has always existed in the
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history of humanity – is modifying itself. Hence, an increase in the movement of people and in the encounter between different languages and cultures means a stronger impact of translation on society. To return to Bhabha, we could say that there is a growing number of “third spaces”, and “[i]t is in the emergence of the interstices – the overlap and displacement of domains of difference – that the intersubjective and collective experiences of nationness, community interest, or cultural value are negotiated” (1994:
2).
If we consider some general data about travelling, we can grasp why it has such a weight in shaping language contact. For example, “[i]nternational tourist arrivals have grown steadily from 25 million in 1950 to a total of 1.186 billion arrivals in 2015”, and this trend is expected to continue leading to 1.8 billion of international tourist arrivals by 2030 (Glaesser et al. 2017). The reasons behind such movements are various; the main one is leisure, followed by visits to relatives or friends, business, etc.7 Also the destinations of travels are several and the growth of the middle-class around the world is pushing forward the tourism market of emerging countries (Glaesser, Kester and Paulose 2017), thus boosting the contact between a wider variety of languages.
For what concerns migration, instead, one might argue people have always emigrated and settled in new territories – it is enough to think of how many Italian and Irish people have crossed the ocean over the centuries – consequently making some degree of translation a necessity in the hosting countries. However, studies on the evolution of this phylogenetic phenomenon demonstrate it has new features.8 As a result, also the processes of translation related to it must have gone through modification. For instance, the growing complexity of bureaucracy in the majority of Western nations means that migrants have to interact with institutions to a greater extent than in the past, and this implies a need for translating. Besides, numerous migrants’ children grow bilingual and, as it happens in Italy for example, they act themselves as interpreters and
7 For more detailed information, see academic.oup.com/jtm/article/24/4/tax007/3748298.
8 For example, some scholars argue that the scale and the articulation of the migration flow we experience nowadays are new. In fact, the current migration phenomenon is characterized by an easiness and speed in actual and virtual movements that did not exist before (Cerrocchi 2013: 23). Moreover, in many cases, the condition of being a migrant is interrelated with a situation of socio-economic inequality and today, more than ever before, migration is a familiar phenomenon that tends to stabilization (25-27, 113). For these and other reasons, it seems clear that the geographical displacement of people has consequences for society and also language and translation.
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mediators for their parents and prefer using the host language outside the family (cf.
Cerrocchi 2013: 147-150; Pintus 2011; Corsini 2011). It is thus evident that their own lives are very much affected by translation, just like the lives of others who do not establish in a different country but circulate regularly, etc. (cf. Kerswill 2006).
Accordingly, as Cronin states, we could observe that
[t]he condition of the migrant is the condition of the translated being [...]
[since] translation takes place both in the physical sense of movement or displacement and in the symbolic sense of the shift from one way of speaking, writing about and interpreting the world to another (2006: 45).
This reflection calls to mind Salman Rushdie’s expression “translated men”, which was coined to explain the complexity of defining his identity as a British Indian writer. He suggests that this peculiar condition can be a source of richness because it grants access to two cultural traditions rather than one and “something can also be gained [in translation]” (Rushdie 1992: 20, 17). Therefore, we notice that when different spaces and cultural identities mark the life of an individual, translation – intended as an obligation, a necessity, but also an opportunity – becomes an intrinsic part of it. In fact, even though they have diverse stories and backgrounds which affect their lives, all migrants share some similar experience and must translate themselves into a new reality.
The list of the contemporary phenomena that show a connection between the geographic and translational dimensions and influence people’s identity and society at large might continue. Nevertheless, the aforementioned ones are enough to understand why recently, such facts have gained the attention of translation studies scholars and have stimulated their interest in adopting a sociological perspective. Now, we will look at some academics who have worked in this sphere of research adopting different foci and methodologies.
1.2.1 Michael Cronin: translation’s role in our world
In several books, Cronin shows an interest in the idea that there is an interconnection between translation, geography and society. Among these are Across the lines (2000), Translation and globalization (2003), and Translation and identity (2006). We will briefly consider some crucial points they illustrate in this subsection.
Probably the most culture- and literary-oriented of these texts, Across the lines offers an interesting overview of a subject that according to Cronin has long been
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neglected: the role of language in travel and in the definition of the identities of those involved in this activity, i.e. the traveller and the other (2000: 1-2). To study this theme, he partly relies on travel accounts through which he presents the occurrence of various types of translation depending on the context:9 intralingual and interlingual, but also intersemiotic. What bridges the different topics discussed is the identification of the traveller with the translator and vice versa. For instance, it is possible to see the translator as a nomadic figure moving across languages physically, intellectually and, nowadays, cybernetically. S/he is an individual always placed “in a ‘third world’, an in-between space between languages and cultures” (4).
Thus, the link between geography and translation is evident in these pages and Cronin himself makes it more explicit by examining the contemporary patterns of people’s movements and arguing that
[t]ranslators as intercultural mediators have for centuries experienced the creative tension between travel, language and translation in the
elaboration of culture and identity. [...] Their assistance, therefore, in understanding what happens when we cross the lines of language and culture on a multilingual planet is and will be invaluable (6).
Already in this book, then, Cronin writes about some themes later developed in his following works, such as identity, globalization, and the impact of new technologies on mobility and on the practice of translation.10 Globalization, for instance, is the main
9 By way of example, in order to demonstrate that the same language can be different in different parts of the world and require a certain degree of intralingual translation, Cronin draws examples from travel accounts of English writers travelling through countries different from their own, such as Roy Kerridge and Charles Graves, a British man and an American man in Ireland. In their works, they reflect on the distinctions between the English they speak and the English they have come across on the island, showing that “intralingual accounts track their own exotica” (Cronin 2000: 14). The same he does for other types of translation and travels.
10 For example, the author reflects on the “time-space compression” that characterizes our times and, from the twentieth century onwards, has made us able to travel increasingly further in a shorter time. He notes that “[t]he consequences of this increased mobility and compression for the translator are considered in the context of globalisation, the rise of English as a world language and the expanded use of machine translation” (Cronin 2000: 5). In relation to this, he touches on the risks of mass transport and travel, the challenges posed by modern tourism, the anxieties associated with migration, the resistances to the hegemony of the global language, the fears of assimilation, etc. (121-126).
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topic in Translation and globalization. In this volume, the connection between translation and geography is established precisely through the subject of globalization, which refers to geographical movement amongst other aspects.11 According to Cronin, since we live in a globalized world and reality is multinational and multicultural, it becomes essential to analyse our current situation from the perspective of a discipline, translation, which has always been concerned with the negotiation between languages and cultures. In fact, this approach might be helpful in understanding the implications and complexities of being citizens of the world (Cronin 2003b: 6). Further, it is worth noticing that in this context, albeit adopting a different approach from Simon, the author underlines how important it is to take into account also the geographical space of the city. This owes to his belief that now “where human beings are regularly confronted with language difference and the potential need to translate is the city” (4).12
Other central issues covered in the text are the relevance of non-literary translations when studying the role of translation in our times and the effects of the changes in economy and information technology on the practices and politics of translation. For example, the progressive de-materialization of space due to new technologies has transformed both the way businesses and institutions communicate and the way in which the translation industry works. In fact, informatics networks allow us to share enormous quantities of data across countries without even moving. This means that translators have access to databases which inevitably transform their methods of translating.13
11 “Globalization is one of the most widely discussed topics in geography and other social sciences. It refers to intensified geographical movements across national borders of commodities, people seeking employment, money and capital investment, knowledge, cultural values, and environmental pollutants. It also refers to the increased interdependence among nation-states and supranational institutions and to increased connectivity among people’s movements for a more democratic and humane society.
Globalization has economic, political, cultural, spatial, and environmental aspects” (Das and Bridi 2013).
12 From Cronin’s point of view, only if people, each one of us, started speaking with “linguistic strangers”
in the urban spaces where they live, it would be possible to avoid the transformation of cities into ‘non- places’ (Augé 1995). We must thus take action if we want cities to be “translation complexes where different language communities both translate and are translated” (Cronin 2003b: 100).
13 For a more extensive and comprehensive survey of this subject see Cronin, M. (2013) Translation in the digital age, London and New York, Routledge. The goal of Cronin in this case is assessing the implications that the pervasive use of technology in translation has on language, society, and culture.
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Although we might find more relevant information in this second text, we turn now to the last one, Translation and identity. Here again, Cronin deals with the space of cities and the relationship between translation and cosmopolitanism. Moreover, he reflects on the theme of migration and on the features which translation, including interpreting, can acquire in specific locations, such as war zones. Significantly, all these topics allude to the notions of space and translation and involve a sociological stance, confirming the author’s will to show that “from the household, to the city to the world, translation must be at the centre of any attempt to think about questions of identity in human society” (2006: 1). His posture is notable as he tries to show that even if translation is often regarded as “marginal or peripheral” in the contemporary world, it is instead fundamental in nearly all human activities (143). Certainly, as we have seen, this practice has undergone many changes – one of the most evident being “the deterritorialization of translation itself where translation is no longer a practice identified with a ‘foreign’
territory and deemed unnecessary on home ground” (65) – however, this does not mean that they are all negative and will lead to the disappearance of diversity.
This latter concern is attentively investigated by Cronin. After arguing that translation can be a means “for humanizing forms of globalization” and proposing the ideas of “micro-cosmopolitanism” and “fractal differentialism”14 to counter common theories related to globalization and cosmopolitanism at the beginning of his work (15- 17), the author devotes the last chapter to diversity. He gives voice to the widespread preoccupations about its progressive loss expressed by the concepts of general and specific entropy in the field of translation, i.e. the self-translation of every language and culture into a single literary language and culture, and the translation of a single literary language and culture into all other language and cultures (Cronin 2006b: 127-129).
Nonetheless, he later introduces the notion of “cultural negentropy” to account for the fact that translation can also promote the evolution and endurance of diversity (129).
Hence, for every phenomenon and process he describes, the author challenges the simplistic views which do not consider the complexity behind them and tries to provide a more comprehensive perspective.
From this brief overview of some works of such a prolific scholar as Cronin, we can see the great variety of subjects which stem from the study of translation and
14 Cf. Cronin, M. (2000) Across the lines: travel, language, translation, Cork, Cork University Press, pp.
16-21.
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geography also in relation to sociology, and, in general, to issues that characterize the contemporary society. Now, we will move on to two other authors who have engaged with similar themes to pursue the aim of grasping the reality around us.
1.2.2 Loredana Polezzi: mobility of people and mobility of texts
Along her career, Polezzi has shown a particular interest in matters of travel, translation and, in more recent times, migration. Such interest is motivated by the fact that, as she herself has stated, “multilingual spaces [are] the spaces of translation, whether [we] see it or not”, and nowadays we constantly confront with this kind of spaces (We Are All Translators 2018). At the same time, a growing number of individuals around us are multilingual; as a result, we live surrounded by translation, and any man, woman or child can function as a translator, not just professionals (We Are All Translators 2018). In accordance to this, she is carrying out a project, ‘Transnationalizing Modern Languages’, which investigates the connection between the mobility of people and the mobility of languages and how the communication between cultures takes place. Its aim is producing a map of how cultures interact, focusing on the case of the spread of Italian culture in different parts of the world due to migration.15
Her interest in these themes depends on the centrality of the link between translation and migration in our contemporary world, since “it goes to the heart of the relationship between individuals, groups and the power exercised over our lives” (Polezzi 2012: 347). As a matter of fact, these phenomena have a direct impact on our societies.
Indeed, we are witnessing an increase in mobility and its influence on several areas of human activity such as communication, the organization of social structures, etc. This is because when people move, they generate contact zones in which languages, cultures and other elements meet and define space and relations (Polezzi 2014: 79). Hence, addressing such issues can be an opportunity to understand better the policies followed by governments, or to get a deeper insight into intercultural literacy, which is both spread globally and adjusted locally (Polezzi 2012: 354; 2014: 80). In addition, if we consider the literary products of migrant writers, we realize the need for broadening the meaning of translation so as to include polylingual and self-translated written texts because these texts incorporate translation (2012: 350). In fact, when they decide to write in the language they have learnt, migrant writers inevitably maintain some features of their
15 For more information see www.transnationalmodernlanguages.ac.uk/.
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mother tongue or of their native culture, thus creating texts “whose existence would not be possible without the intervention of translation processes” (351).
Yet, there are more topics discussed by Polezzi which are relevant to our investigation. For example, in the article that opens the special issue of The Translator – edited by the author herself and dedicated to Translation, travel, migration – she deals with the theme of travel in more general terms.16 Amongst other considerations, she draws attention to the risk of ignoring the complexity behind notions of translation and travel due to the extensive consideration they are receiving. She also underlines the need of keeping in mind the metaphorical meanings usually attributed to them to “concentrate on the practices, realities and social actors residing within the labels” (2006: 175). This means that it is necessary to give the right regard to the geographical, historical, and social contexts in which such phenomena occur, without forgetting the relations of power which often influence translation activities (174, 177). On that account, the author looks at the link between translation and migration from the perspective of power structures and asymmetry. Furthermore, the final remarks in her paper – before the presentation of the other contributions in the issue – suggest a desire to promote
a more flexible and pervasive image of translation, which encompasses a wide range of practices, from self-translation to multilingual writing, from community interpreting to inter-media adaptation, without losing sight of the geographically and historically located nature of practices and of their ethical as well as social dimension (181).
In conclusion, as Cronin’s achievements, Polezzi’s commitment to examine the connection between social and geographical mobilities and theories and practices of translation offers a representative example of the developments that an insight into translation and geography can stimulate.
16 Interestingly, the issue contains a variety of articles by many scholars that fit into the trajectory we are dealing with and also the reviews of two of the books we have examined in short in the previous sections.
Furthermore, this article itself includes references to authors and texts we have taken into consideration, such as Cronin, Pratt, Clifford, and Simon. This reveals a widespread interest in translation and geography and confirms that it is worth trying to assess the contributions made until now in this field.
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1.2.3 Moira Inghilleri: migrants’ lives and translation
In connection to the previous subsections, we can see that in Translation and migration, Inghilleri deals with the important theme of migration and its relationship with the practice of translation. Whereas the former is very significant nowadays on account of a new wave of migrants, for the most part from the Middle East (Inghilleri 2017: 1), and of the changes that media and technologies have brought about;17 the latter is “a particular form of interaction, [which] functions as and within crucial discursive spaces where alternative modes of perception are negotiated, challenged, and configured”, and which is thus essential in the context of migration (34). Notably, what is meant by translation is not only the linguistic type, but also the cultural and social ones (34). For instance, they are all relevant in shaping people’s identities, and in defining the relationships between people and the environment surrounding them.
Throughout the book, the author concentrates on the role of translating in building dialogues and considers a number of concepts, phenomena and real examples that help understand the actual impact of translation on migrants’ lives and what forms it takes.
Intercultural and interlingual communication, in fact, can offer an occasion to promote politics of inclusion and mutual recognition, while avoiding the erasure of difference (Inghilleri 2017: 27-28). Relating to this, the notion of hospitality is introduced to show that translators and interpreters must often face ethical and moral conundrums. Indeed, in general, the endorsement of activities of translation may reveal an effort in accepting and preserving the peculiarities of others’ cultures and of others’ rights (31). Otherwise, their rejection can be symptomatic of racial intolerance (39). This means that, in some contexts,
“tensions can emerge, as in any profession, between the moral ‘person’ and the ethical
‘professional’” (57), especially when translators’ judgments serve as indicators to decide who is allowed to remain in a host country and who cannot.18 Moreover, translation can
17 Over the last decades, as said before, migration has experienced a considerable transformation. This is mainly dependent on the logistical and economic accessibility to air travel and the widely spread forms of telecommunication of our times, such as the internet, smartphones, etc. (Inghilleri 2017: 2). For example, the current wave of migration from Syria has been defined as a “‘modern migration’, the first of its kind in a fully digital age where refugees rely on smartphones (and phone charging stations) to be able to find safe routes at different border crossings” (8). These transformations have an undeniable impact on the patterns of migration and on the way migrants preserve and construct their identities.
18 Inghilleri takes as an example of the problem of “linguistic hospitality” (Ricoeur 2006: 10), the migration to the US during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; in particular, she portrays the experience of
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be a means for creating historical accounts of experiences of migration and conveying political messages, and “a site where power and conflict become plainly visible” (59).
Exploring more specific topics, Inghilleri studies the role of translation in the lives of labour migrants, who can be fully established in the host territory or circulate amongst countries, and have different gender, age and cultural identities, thus requiring a distinct treatment in terms of language. Then, there is a focus on the notion of “translating landscapes”. It refers to how migrants translate themselves into what surrounds them in order to find geographical correspondences with their places of origin, feel at home in the new country, and construct transnational identities. Finally, the book contains a detailed analysis of some research into the presence of translation in urban signs and the difficulties faced by young immigrants, in particular 1.5- and second-generation adolescents, in building their own identities, even in relation to recent technological developments affecting transport and communication.
What is interesting about this work, which is in line with the previous ones for themes and worries, is the ability of the author to trace a thread that connects the concepts of geography and translation, offering a view of past and present movements of people and their impact on language and territory. Moreover, the accurate data provided make the book particularly relevant not only for translation studies scholars but also for those involved in other disciplines, such as sociology.
It must be recognized that this outline is not complete for various reasons: the scholars introduced here are only a selection among others who have dealt with such themes19 and their works are much more complex and richer than what emerges from these few pages.
However, the information presented seems to be enough to catch a glimpse of the main contributions to the study of translation and geography so far. All the approaches we have discussed are diverse and could be potentially developed and applied to further investigations, revealing the richness and opportunities offered by this line of research.
For example, the majority of Italian cities are nowadays multilingual due to immigration
immigrants who arrived in two different locations – Ellis Island (New York) and Angel Island (San Francisco) – and had to go through a variety of tests and trials, which were even traumatizing in some cases.
These accounts are worth considering as they help reconstruct the role of language knowledge, translation, and interpreting in such circumstances (Inghilleri 2017: 45-57).
19 Cf. Kershaw, Angela; Saldanha, Gabriela (2013) Introduction: global landscapes of translation, in
“Translation Studies”, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 135-149, doi.org/10.1080/14781700.2013.777257.
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and this has transformed city life to a considerable degree and has led to the multiplication of contact zones. Therefore, it would be interesting to assess the position of translation in such peculiar geographic spaces. To do this, one might follow the method used by Inghilleri and rely on social sciences, gathering and examining experimental evidence about language contact.
In the next chapters, instead, the perspective will be mainly cultural. Drawing on the model proposed by Sherry Simon, we will try to evaluate the role of translation in the history and shaping of Dublin as a “dual city”. For centuries, in fact, it has seen the coexistence of and the contrasts between Irish and English, which have given an impulse to the birth of a new variety of English and to several forms of translation.
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CHAPTER 2
A “translational island”: the relationship between Irish and English
Dublin, as stated before, is a place where languages, mainly but not only Irish and English, have met for centuries giving birth to what can be defined as a “city in translation”.
However, before digging into the history and translational life of the city, it is worth providing a brief historical account of how languages and cultures came into contact on the island of Ireland along with an overview on the development and main features of Irish English. Finally, we will also consider the impact of language policy and planning since independence on the current relationship between Irish and English and the people of the Republic of Ireland.
Interestingly, all these aspects are deeply related to translation: the coexistence of different languages has stimulated translation activity; the translation of the Irish people into the English language and culture gave rise to a new variety of English; the presence of two official languages in the country makes translation inevitable.
Translators as inventive mediators have shaped every area of Irish life for centuries, [...] without [them] the emergence and development of
different cultures in Ireland would have been literally and metaphorically speaking inconceivable. [...] Architects of literatures and languages, channels of influence, ambassadors for the Other, they embody at the same time many of the painful dilemmas of Ireland’s troubled history (Cronin 1996: 1).
Therefore, we see again that translation and geography, including its social and political implications,20 are bound together, and that besides emphasizing the gap between
20 Albeit without adopting an exclusively geographical perspective, in Siting translation, Tejaswini Niranjana (1992) shows that translation is always situated and takes place within a specific historical and sociopolitical background. She says that “[i]n a post-colonial context the problematic of translation becomes a significant site for raising questions of representation, power, and historicity” (1), which is especially true for the Irish context. Hence, it seems crucial to situate translation by looking at its conflictual aspects (Simon 2019a), as we will try to do throughout the next pages by looking at some information about Ireland, and then analysing the city of Dublin from a translational point of view.
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cultures, translation can also be a means for keeping company with strangers thus creating something new (Cronin 2019).
2.1 Historical background: how Irish and English came into contact
In Ireland both in the North and in the South, it has become virtually impossible to separate the traditions of English-language and Irish-language cultures. Irish artists and writers, as well as the general populace, must be set in the context of both cultures, for they work across language and cultural boundaries freely, owning all that has been handed over from the past in Ireland, whatever its linguistic origin. In a sense, therefore, Ireland has become a translational culture where asymmetries exist and coexist in language, tradition, and culture [...] Two cultural traditions once separate have become blended and hybridized (Tymoczko and Ireland 2003: 20).
Since the very beginning of its history, the island of Ireland has been the destination of various peoples with distinct linguistic and cultural backgrounds. In addition to Irish and English, Latin, Welsh, French, and some Scandinavian dialects, to name but a few, have contributed to the development of the Irish culture we know today (cf. Tymoczko and Ireland 2003: 1-2). Their encounter and clash have produced both positive and negative outcomes, a rich but contradictory heritage. For instance, the effects of the tension between the Irish and the English are still visible nowadays even though they are not in a colonizer-colonized relationship anymore. The recent controversies due to Brexit and the killing of the young journalist Lyra McKee by the New IRA during Derry rioting in April 2019 are tangible evidence of the complex history of Ireland.
In this section, we will illustrate the main stages in Irish history, directing special attention to those involving linguistic presence on the island.
2.1.1 First settlements and Christianization: Celtic dialects and Latin
Ireland became an island around 10,000 years ago when the sea level rose due to the melting of the ice that once covered part of its territory, thus separating it from Britain. It was around that period, the Mesolithic Age, when the first settlers arrived and started colonizing the territory. They probably came from mainland Europe and western Britain and lived as hunters and gatherers (Connolly 2011: 374-75). Subsequently, during the
