ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF RESILIENCE CONFRONTING HARD ECONOMIC TIMES:

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PACO, ISSN: 2035-6609 - Copyright © 2017 - University of Salento, SIBA: http://siba-ese.unisalento.it PArtecipazione e COnflitto * The Open Journal of Sociopolitical Studies http://siba-ese.unisalento.it/index.php/paco

ISSN: 1972-7623 (print version) ISSN: 2035-6609 (electronic version) PACO, Issue 10(1) 2017: 119-135

DOI: 10.1285/i20356609v10i1p119

Published in March 15, 2017 Work licensed under a Creative Commons At-tribution-Non commercial-Share alike 3.0 Italian License

SPECIAL SECTION/ EDI TORIAL

ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF RESILIENCE CONFRONTING HARD

ECONOMIC TIMES:

A South European Perspective

1

Maria Kousis

University of Crete

ABSTRACT: The aim of this special issue is to contribute to the study of alternative forms of resilience,

vis-ible in the economic and noneconomic activities of citizens confronting hard economic times and falling rights in Italy, Spain, Greece and Portugal, since the global financial crisis of 2008. It does so through a set of recent empirical studies which adopt recent theoretical approaches, such as Social Innovation or Sus-tainable Community Movement Organizations, and offer new evidence on solidarity oriented practices, including their links to social movement activism. The authors of this special issue contribute to the exist-ing recent debates by highlightexist-ing key features of alternative forms of resilience, their links to social movements and theoretical orientations influenced by social movement and resilience studies in four Southern European countries and regions.

1_{This special issue draws from four papers presented in Panel P232 “Alternative Forms of Resilience in}

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KEYWORDS: Alternative Actions, Collective Resilience, Social and Solidarity Economy, South Europe, Crisis,

Social Movements

CORRESPONDING AUTHORS: Maria Kousis, email: [email protected]

1. Introduction

This special issue aims to contribute to the study of alternative forms of economic and noneconomic activities by citizens confronting hard economic times and falling rights in Italy, Spain, Greece and Portugal, since the global financial crisis of 2008. It will do so through a set of recent empirical studies offering new evidence on these solidari-ty-oriented practices, including their links to social movement activism. Expanding across global regions, collective responses to economic hardship under neoliberal poli-cies tend to cover basic and urgent needs related to food, shelter, health, childcare and education, as well as echoing a quest towards alternative economic models. These citi-zen collective actions and initiatives of resilience include solidarity-based exchanges and networks, cooperative structures, barter clubs and networks, credit unions, ethical banks, time banks, anti-eviction initiatives, alternative social currency, citizens’ self-help groups and social enterprises.

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However, although since the nineties, and especially the recent crisis period, a plethora of such initiatives flourish in Southern Eurozone countries, there has been a lack of systematic research on these novel collective responses in the form of alterna-tive economic and noneconomic activities in Southern Europe. A limited, albeit rising number of studies exist on the south European experience (e.g. D’Alisa, Forno and Maurano 2015), such as works on consumer-producer networks, or initiatives confront-ing the current crisis and neo-liberal policies in Italy (e.g. Costa et al, 2012, Fonte, 2013, Forno and Graziano 2014), on austerity related initiatives in Spain (e.g. Conill et al 2012, Cruz et al this issue, Nez 2014, Fonimaya and Jimenez 2014, Camps-Calvet et al 2015), on alternative and environment related community initiatives related to the cri-sis in Portugal (Matos 2012, Baumgarten this issue) and on the rapid increase of soli-darity initiatives in crisis-ridden Greece, (Petropoulou 2013, Sotiropoulou 2012, Rakopoulos 2014, Clarke, Huliaras and Sotoropoulos 2015, Gritzas and Kavoulakos 2015). The relationship between alternative community based practices and social movements has only recently been the focus of related works (Forno and Graziano 2014, D’Alisa, Forno and Maurano 2015, Guidi and Andretta 2015, Bosi and Zamponi 2015), especially in relation to political consumerism and the global justice movement.

New findings across nine European countries reveal that those South European countries – i.e. Greece and Spain - harder hit by the crisis witnessed higher peaks in newly created alternative organizations and groups, while at the same time, their initi-atives tended to be organised more by informal and protest groups compared to those in the other countries (LIVEWHAT D6.4 2016). More specifically, the systematic, organi-zational website data also show that since 2008, South European countries witnessed the creation of a higher number of such initiatives centred towards covering urgent needs, compared to the non-South European countries (LIVEWHAT D6.4 2016, Kousis, Bosi and Cristancho 2016).

Considering the substantial impact of hard economic times and austerity policies across South Eurozone countries, this special issue aims to contribute to this literature and enhance our understanding on how citizens in these countries confront austerity impacts through alternative practices and initiatives which move beyond mainstream economic practices. It will do so through a collection of articulate papers with fresh da-ta and new case studies covering a wide variety of alternative solidarity oriented prac-tices and actions, including social innovation and solidarity-based purchase groups from Greece, Italy, Spain and Portugal, focused mainly on the recent economic crisis period.

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retical orientations influenced by social movement and resilience studies in four Southern European countries/regions. Furthermore, a typology is offered on the differ-ent conceptual and theoretical perspectives through which these alternative practices have been approached and examined, also building on recent works on the South Eu-ropean experience. Informed by the approaches of the contributors and systematic, ongoing comparative research, this special issue as a whole aims to expand our under-standing of non-mainstream/alternative collective responses during hard economic times.

2. Alternative forms of resilience: definitions and theoretical orientations

Resilience is a contested notion, defined and approached through a variety of theo-retical and methodological perspectives, from pro-governmental to critical ones. It has become “…a central concept informing policy frameworks dealing with political, devel-opmental, social, economic, security and environmental problems in ways that clearly transcend traditional disciplinary boundaries” (Chandler 2013, 1). However, it has also been described as “the resilience doctrine… a new form of political nihilism that forces us to accept the inevitability of the liberal politics of catastrophe” (Evans and Reid 2015, 154).

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Following Kousis and Paschou (this issue, xx) Alternative Forms of Resilience (AFR) are defined as:

…diverse repertoires of citizens’ direct solidarity actions and aims, with economic as well as a socio-political transformative capacity, which are alternative to the mainstream/dominant capitalist economy, or aim at building autonomous communities. They usually flourish during hard economic times marked by austerity policies, multiple, compound inequalities, govern-ance problems, the weakening of social policies, as well as the depletion of labour and social welfare rights.

The authors in this special issue study a wide repertoire of AFR participating groups, some of which may be more reformist, aiming to influence policy actors, while others tend to be more critical and aim to construct autonomous communities of highly committed participants.

Theoretical orientations to the study of AFR

As the number of studies on AFR have increased over the past couple of decades, so have the number of different theoretical approaches. Although many scholars centre on similar alternative initiatives, they opt to use different concepts and theoretical ori-entations to describe and analyse them. Some, however, focus their studies on special-ised alternative initiatives related, for example, to social economy, solidarity exchange, or degrowth practices. Based on the typology of AFR approaches by Kousis and Paschou (this issue, xx ), below follows a brief summary of their orientation, from the more reformist and policy oriented ones to those fostering autonomous and post-capitalist communities and social movement identities.

In the more reformist approach, the third sector is defined as “…a sector of organ-ised human action composed of collective actors beyond the family and distinct from the state and the market” (Viterna et al 2015, 175). These tend to focus on NGOs and volunteers under neoliberal governments, while more recent ones highlight “austere relations” between the market, the state and the third sector (Milbourne 2013, Ben-nett et al 2015,100, Macmillan 2015), and its important contribution to covering social needs (Stiglitz 2009, Clarke et al 2015).

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economy scholars tend to study grassroots, bottom-up initiatives with a non-market

and non-monetary orientation (Moulaert and Ailenei 2005). Others, taking an

“alterna-tive economic practices” approach, such as Castells, Caraca and Cardoso (2012) place

emphasis on the decisive role of culture, trust and networks in creating non-profit, nonmainstream economic initiatives organised by social community based groups.

Concerned with reflexive modernity’s empowerment and governance issues, Mou-laert et al (2010) centre their work on social innovation, i.e. the outcome of social and institutional mobilisation covering social needs and empower social groups towards open governance systems (Moulaert et al 2013). Through a social innovation approach, Cruz, Martinez and Ismael (this issue) show that these practices are unevenly distribut-ed in Catalonia’s urban areas, concentrating mainly on middle-income neighbour-hoods, but not on the disadvantaged ones.

Integrating political consumerism and social movement theory, more recent studies highlight the importance of Sustainable Community Movement Organizations (SCMOs), which encompass a variety of citizens and other alternative collective initia-tives empowering consumer and producer networks on a smaller scale, at the local level, to confront hard economic times (e.g. Forno and Graziano 2014, D’Alisa, Forno and Maurano 2015). They pay close attention to critical consumer practices and the links of SCMOs with the Global Justice movement (e.g. Bosi and Zamponi 2015). Three of the papers in this issue adopt this approach (Papadaki and Kalogeraki, Andretta and Guidi, Baumgarten).

Close to yet different from the SCMOs approach is the one by “Degrowth/-décroissance” scholars, focused on an alternative economy pursued on a voluntary ba-sis, confronting dominant economic paradigms, with a variety of action strategies in-cluding building alternatives outside of mainstream economic institutions, especially at the grassroots level (e.g. Demaria et al 2013, D’Alisa, Forno and Maurano 2015). Like the Degrowth approach, the ‘post-growth’ one (D’Alisa, Demaria and Kallis 2014) by scholars such as Joan Martinez-Allier, Georgios Kallis, Matthias Schmelzer, Serge Latouche and the New Economic Forum, is focused on new, collective ownership forms of ecological and social entrepreneurship, prioritising people and the planet over capi-talism (Kunze & Becker 2014).

More radical still are the capitalist and anarchist approaches. The

post-capitalist/post-foundational approach centres on organising new, highly committed

communities and the everyday practices of autonomous activists, aimed at fostering a re-territorialisation of democratic politics (Kaika and Karaliotas 2014). Similarly, the

Anarchist approach relates solidarity, diversity and equity values, with

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chists’ contribution in popular social movements, union organising and collective ex-propriation (Shantz 2013, Pautz and Komninou 2013).

In adopting the above AFR typology (Kousis and Pachou this issue) the special issue sheds light on the more recent approaches of Alternative Economy, Sustainable Com-munity Movement Organisations, Social Innovation, Degrowth/postgrowth and Post-capitalist which have surfaced, or gained strength during the crisis period, in the highly impacted crisis-hit South European countries. Embracing a social movement orienta-tion, these approaches are portrayed as an important, more recent development to the previously established social and solidarity economy approaches, in response to the latest challenges and hard times (Kousis and Paschou this issue xx). The authors of this special issue apply these approaches and offer new evidence and findings on the relationship between alternative forms of resilience and social movement organisa-tions in Greece, Spain, Italy and Portugal.

3. Social Movement Insights

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In his influential work on action repertoires, Tilly (1986) has shown how the means that people have at their disposal are historically determined and that they have changed over time. In contrast to those that characterised the action repertoire of pre-vious centuries, the strike and the mass demonstration were the two main forms of ac-tion repertoire in the 20th_{century. Moreover, in recent decades, the forms of}

conten-tion have witnessed an expanding and multi-scalar shift, from the local, regional and national to the supra-national, through the use of new technologies (Mayer 2013).

During the past few decades, contentious as well as direct and solidarity actions have (re)appeared in response to hard economic times across global regions - such as Latin America - and have especially flourished in Southern Europe since the economic crisis of 2008. Alternative forms of resilience such as solidarity-based exchanges and networks, cooperative structures, barter clubs and networks, credit unions, ethical banks, time banks, alternative social currency, citizens’ self-help groups, social enter-prises, and still others are now part of the repertoire of popular activism. These direct actions, therefore, have extended the action repertoire of social movements, and citi-zens can “draw” from a wider “toolkit” (Tilly 1986) to both, make their claims and deal with the hardships of crisis periods.

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What is important to point out, however, in these alternative forms of resilience is that they may be seen as crosscutting the political and non-political realms. They do so by distinguishing themselves from both electoral and non-electoral channels of political participation as we usually understand them. First, they attest to an alternative kind of politics involving the creation of bottom-up, resilient participatory initiatives promoting an alternative, solidarity economy. They organise direct actions (Bosi and Zamponi 2015) and practices whereby people participate in actions offering support to others in a direct manner – instead of asking others to act and solve the problems they face. Ten main types of alternative solidarity activities have recently been documented, based on systematic evidence from nine European countries. They include activities related to basic and urgent needs (related to food, shelter, medical services, clothing, free legal advice and anti-eviction initiatives), economy-related activities (involving alternative coins, barter clubs, financial support, products and service provision on low prices, fundraising activities, second-hand shops and bazaars), alternative consumption activi-ties (such as producer-consumer actions, community gardens, boycotts and buycotts, and energy and environmental actions), as well as interest group advocacy, self-organised spaces, and civic media (LIVEWHAT D6.4 2016). At the same time, these new forms of “doing politics” can be seen as being, in a way, infra-political, or at least hav-ing an infra-political dimension.

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4. The Papers in this Issue

Overall, the repertoire of alternative actions in Southern Europe since the nineties ranges from social movement led political consumerism to solidarity direct actions aimed at improving the conditions faced by citizens instead of, or in addition to de-manding them from the state, especially during hard economic times (Bosi and Zam-poni 2015), including anti-eviction and other direct actions led by the Indignados (Nez 2014, Kaika and Karaliotas 2014). Related to social movement organisations, but also to citizen initiatives are actions by solidarity purchase groups that promote fairness and justice for producers and consumers and the capacity to face periods of crises (Andret-ta and Guidi in this issue), as well as Social Support Actions (Papadaki and Kalogeraki in this issue), in which local social movement groups invite the public to solidarity initia-tives in relation to the deep impacts of the crisis in Greece.

The papers included in this issue offer a diversity of theoretical and methodological approaches in their explorations, description and explanation of AFR. They are mostly written by scholars who specialise in social movement research in South European re-gions and thus tend to focus on issues related to their organising structure, framing processes, and socio-economic and political milieus. As we have seen earlier, alterna-tive forms of resilience can be – and have been – studied from different theoretical perspectives. They can also be investigated by means of different methodological ap-proaches, bearing on the micro-, meso- and macro-levels of analysis. Indeed, the pa-pers in this special issue attest to the methodological versatility of the still small but ris-ing literature on recent alternative forms of resilience followris-ing the global economic crisis of 2008.

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The paper by Britta Baumgartner deals with the Portuguese case. She studies the impact of the economic crisis on alternative projects such as self-organised cultural centres, urban gardening groups, and solidarity based exchange networks in Portugal, both in urban and rural areas. As found in other studies also, her analysis suggests that resilience strategies have become more important in Portugal during the last decade. Most importantly, she finds that the socioeconomic crisis, although it is not the main reason for the emergence of such projects, impinges in important ways upon the day-to-day work of the groups, both positively and negatively. More specifically, respond-ents to a small survey she has conducted report changes in financial, personal and time resources as well as in people’s attitudes since the start of the crisis. However, the mo-tives behind such developments relate to ideals of sustainability, alternative forms of production, quality of food, and the search for more personal systems of distribution and consumption of goods rather than to the necessity to create alternatives in order to meet basic needs. Britta Baumgartner shows one way to do so in her paper for this issue. She has prepared a questionnaire which she distributed amongst projects of

Rede Convergir, a recent and fast growing project to build a network of projects related

to resilience in Portugal, in order to study the impact of the socio-economic crisis on them. . This approach provides first-hand information on these kinds of alternative practices which cannot be obtained from existing general survey data. Moreover, it can be aimed both at obtaining information at the micro, individual level, and at grasping the meso level, that is, concerning the initiatives and organisations themselves rather than the individuals involved in them.

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lectivities are characterised by limited supportive interactions and collaborative net-working with other agencies.

Helena Cruz, Ruben Martinez and Ismael Blanco examine the contribution of social innovation to the capacity of disadvantaged communities to resist the effects of the crisis in Catalonia using a multi-method approach that combines a statistical analysis of urban segregation dynamics, a mapping of social innovation practices, and a compari-son of six case studies. Their analysis shows that social innovation practices do not con-centrate on the most disadvantaged communities, but rather observe middle-income areas with a tradition of social mobilisation. They further show that community resili-ence in disadvantaged urban areas is largely dependent on the capacity of governmen-tal and non-governmengovernmen-tal actors to work jointly to face the challenges of communities. More generally, their paper warns against the risks of transferring to social innovation the responsibility for social cohesion in cities and highlights the need of multi-scalar policies with redistributive effects between municipalities and urban areas. A multi-method approach is fruitfully adopted in the paper by Cruz, Martínez and Ismael, in this issue. More specifically, they combine statistical analysis of urban segregation dy-namics, mapping social innovation practices, and case-study comparison in order to as-certain the contribution of social innovation to the capacity of the disadvantaged.

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The authors of this special issue illustrate the involvement of Southern Europe not only in the wide array of alternative forms of resilience, but also in their links to social movements, since the economic crisis of 2008. Given the limited space and number of contributions, they can only scratch the surface of why and how alternative forms of resilience confronting austerity and the crisis in Southern Europe are changing the ways of doing politics. Whether this is a temporary phenomenon or bears witness to a more durable shift in the repertoires of contention, will remain an open question.

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Papers published in this Special Section

Andretta M., R. Guidi (2010), “Political Consumerism and Producerism inTimes of Crisis. A Social Movement Perspective?”, Partecipazione e conflitto, 10(1): 246-274.

Baumgarten B. (2010), “Back to Solidarity-Based Living? The Economic Crisis and the Development of Alternative Projects in Portugal”, Parteciazione e conflitto, 10(1): 169-192.

Cruz, Rubén Martínez Moreno H., I. Blanco (2010), “Crisis, Urban Segregation and Social Innovation in Catalonia”, Partecipazione e conflitto, 10(1): 221-245.

Kousis M., M. Paschou (2010), “Alternative Forms of Resilience. A typology of ap-proaches for the study of Citizen Collective Responses in Hard Economic Times”,

Par-teciazione e conflitto, 10(1): 136-168.

Papadaki M., S. Kalogeraki (2010), “Social Support Actions as Forms of Building Com-munity Resilience at the Onset of the Crisis in Urban Greece: The Case of Chania”,

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135 AUTHOR’S INFORMATION

Maria Kousis is Professor of Sociology and Director of the Centre for Research and