CT OF THE H EART

CT OF THE H EART

C HRISTOPHER P. C ANNON , MD S ERIES E DITOR

C ONTEMPORARY C ^ARDIOLOGY

CT of the Heart: Principles and Applications, edited by U. Joseph Schoepf, ^MD , 2005

Principles of Molecular Cardiology, edited by Marschall S.

Runge, ^MD and Cam Patterson, ^MD , 2005 Heart Disease Diagnosis and Therapy: A Practical

Approach, Second Edition, edited by Gabriel M.

Khan, ^MD , ^FRCP , ^FRCP ( ^C ), ^FACC , 2005 Cardiovascular Genomics: Gene Mining for

Pharmacogenomics and Gene Therapy, edited by Mohan K. Raizada, ^PhD , Julian F. R. Paton, ^PhD , Michael J. Katovich, ^PhD , and Sergey Kasparov, ^MD ,

PhD , 2005

Surgical Management of Congestive Heart Failure, edited by James C. Fang, ^MD and Gregory S. Couper, ^MD , 2005

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation, edited by Joseph P.

Ornato, ^MD , ^FACP , ^FACC , ^FACEP and Mary Ann Peberdy,

MD , ^FACC , 2005

Cardiac Transplantation: The Columbia University Medical Center/New York-Presbyterian Hospital Manual, edited by Niloo M. Edwards, ^MD , Jonathan M. Chen, ^MD , and Pamela A. Mazzeo, 2004

Heart Disease and Erectile Dysfunction, edited by Robert A. Kloner, ^MD , ^PhD , 2004

Coronary Disease in Women: Evidence-Based Diagnosis and Treatment, edited by Leslee J. Shaw, ^PhD and Rita F. Redberg, ^MD , ^FACC , 2004

Complementary and Alternative Cardiovascular Medicine, edited by Richard A. Stein, ^MD and Mehmet C. Oz, ^MD , 2004

Nuclear Cardiology, The Basics: How to Set Up and Maintain a Laboratory, by Frans J. Th. Wackers, ^MD ,

PhD , Wendy Bruni, ^BS , ^CNMT , and Barry L. Zaret, ^MD , 2004

Minimally Invasive Cardiac Surgery, Second Edition, edited by Daniel J. Goldstein, md, and Mehmet C. Oz,

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Cardiovascular Health Care Economics, edited by William S. Weintraub, ^MD , 2003

Platelet Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa Inhibitors in Cardiovascular Disease, Second Edition, edited by A. Michael Lincoff, ^MD , 2003

Heart Failure: A Clinician’s Guide to Ambulatory

Diagnosis and Treatment, edited by Mariell L. Jessup,

MD and Evan Loh, ^MD , 2003

Management of Acute Coronary Syndromes, Second Edition, edited by Christopher P. Cannon, ^MD 2003 Aging, Heart Disease, and Its Management: Facts and

Controversies, edited by Niloo M. Edwards, ^MD , Mathew S. Maurer, ^MD , and Rachel B. Wellner, ^MPH , 2003

Peripheral Arterial Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment, edited by Jay D. Coffman, ^MD and Robert T.

Eberhardt, ^MD , 2003

Cardiac Repolarization: Bridging Basic and Clinical Science, edited by Ihor Gussak, ^MD , phd, Charles Antzelevitch, phd, Stephen C. Hammill, ^MD , Win K.

Shen, ^MD , and Preben Bjerregaard, ^MD , ^DMSC , 2003 Essentials of Bedside Cardiology: With a Complete Course

in Heart Sounds and Murmurs on CD, Second Edition, by Jules Constant, ^MD , 2003

Primary Angioplasty in Acute Myocardial Infarction, edited by James E. Tcheng, ^MD , 2002

Cardiogenic Shock: Diagnosis and Treatment, edited by David Hasdai, ^MD , Peter B. Berger, ^MD , Alexander Battler, ^MD , and David R. Holmes, Jr., ^MD , 2002 Management of Cardiac Arrhythmias, edited by Leonard I.

Ganz, ^MD , 2002

Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease, edited by Michael T.

Johnstone, md and Aristidis Veves, ^MD , ^DS

, 2001 Blood Pressure Monitoring in Cardiovascular Medicine and

Therapeutics, edited by William B. White, ^MD , 2001 Vascular Disease and Injury: Preclinical Research, edited

by Daniel I. Simon, ^MD , and Campbell Rogers, ^MD , 2001

Preventive Cardiology: Strategies for the Prevention and

Treatment of Coronary Artery Disease, edited by

JoAnne Micale Foody, ^MD , 2001

E DITED BY

U. J ^OSEPH S ^CHOEPF , ^MD

D ^{EPARTMENT OF} R ^ADIOLOGY , M ^EDICAL U ^{NIVERSITY OF} S ^OUTH C ^AROLINA , C ^HARLESTON , SC

F OREWORD BY

A ^LEXANDER R. M ^ARGULIS , ^MD , ^{DS C ( HON )}

C ^LINICAL P ^{ROFESSOR OF} R ^ADIOLOGY , W ^EILL M ^EDICAL C ^{OLLEGE OF} C ^ORNELL U ^NIVERSITY , N ^EW Y ^ORK , NY

CT ^{OF THE} H ^EART

P ^{RINCIPLES AND} A PPLICATIONS

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All articles, comments, opinions, conclusions, or recommendations are those of the author(s), and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher.

Due diligence has been taken by the publishers, editors, and authors of this book to ensure the accuracy of the information published and to describe generally accepted practices. The contributors herein have carefully checked to ensure that the drug selections and dosages set forth in this text are accurate in accord with the standards accepted at the time of publication. Notwithstanding, as new research, changes in government regulations, and knowledge from clinical experience relating to drug therapy and drug reactions constantly occurs, the reader is advised to check the product information provided by the manufacturer of each drug for any change in dosages or for additional warnings and contraindications. This is of utmost importance when the recommended drug herein is a new or infrequently used drug. It is the responsibility of the health care provider to ascertain the Food and Drug Administration status of each drug or device used in their clinical practice. The publisher, editors, and authors are not responsible for errors or omissions or for any consequences from the application of the information presented in this book and make no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the contents in this publication.

Cover illustration: figure 6D from chapter 25, “CT Angiography for Assessment of Coronary Artery Anomalies,” by Steffen C. Froehner, Matthias Wagner, Juergen Brunn, and Rainer R. Schmitt; figures 13 and 14 from chapter 3, “Scan Techniques for Cardiac and Coronary Artery Imaging With Multislice CT,” by Bernd M.

Ohnesorge, Brian R. Westerman, and U. Joseph Schoepf; figure 13 from chapter 4, “Image Reconstruction for ECG-Triggered and ECG-Gated Multislice CT,”

by Thomas Flohr and Tinsu Pan; figure 13 from chapter 24, “Visualization Techniques for Contrast-Enhanced CT Angiography of Coronary Arteries,” by Jean- Louis Sablayrolles and Pascal Giat; and figure 9 from chapter 18, “Multidetector-Row CT Assessment of Left-Ventricular Function,” by Kai Uwe Juergens and Roman Fischbach.

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e-ISBN: 1-59259-818-8

Printed in the United States of America. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

CT of the heart : principles and applications / edited by U. Joseph Schoepf.

p. ; cm. -- (Contemporary cardiology) Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-58829-303-3 (alk. paper) 1. Heart--Tomography.

[DNLM: 1. Heart--radiography. 2. Tomography, X-Ray Computed. WG 141.5.T6 C959 2004] I. Schoepf, U. J. (U. Joseph), 1969- II. Series: Contemporary cardiology (Totowa, N.J. : Unnumbered)

RC683.5.T66C785 2004 616.1'20757--dc22

2004003443

Foreword

Radiologic technology has made dramatic advances in the last 25 years, and none have been more impressive than those in computed tomography (CT). The progress in the speed of obtaining images, computing, postprocessing, and spatial resolution has been incredible. The result is that CT has moved from displaying purely morphologic information to providing valuable physiologic data as well.

Whether with electron beam or multidetector-row CT, advances are impressive and nowhere have the applica- tions been more useful and dramatic than in the heart.

This multiauthored book, CT of the Heart, edited by U.

Joseph Schoepf, MD , is a splendid rendition of the state-of- the-art in CT imaging of the heart; however, where appro- priate, it also features comparisons with other technical approaches, such as magnetic resonance and ultrasound.

The contributors are leading radiologists, cardiologists, physicists, engineers, and basic and clinical scientists from Europe, the United States, Israel, and Japan.

v

The entire contents are meticulous and comprehensive, from the introduction about the past, present, and future of CT of the heart, through the technical underpinning of the method and the various clinical, physiologic, and pathologic applications of CT in studying the heart.

This book fills an immense need, particularly at a time when cardiac screening with CT, whether one agrees with this practice or not, is a reality. Furthermore, with the rapid increase of aging populations in the industrialized world, noninvasive diagnostic approaches are increas- ingly needed. As technology continues to advance and applications of CT to heart studies expand, it is my hope that the editor will bring this book up to date with a new edition.

Alexander R. Margulis, ^MD , ^DS c (

)

Clinical Professor of Radiology

Weill Medical College of Cornell University

vii

Preface

Through the ages of exploration and enlightenment the heart has kept its fascination as the metaphor of life. Its firm entrenchment in human emotion and consciousness and the overwhelming socioeconomic importance of its diseases make noninvasive visualization and diagnosis of the heart and its diseases the coveted “holy grail” of medi- cal imaging.

Imaging of the heart has always been technically chal- lenging, because of the heart’s continuous motion. The introduction and ongoing technical improvement of fast ECG-synchronized computed tomography (CT) scanning of the heart has enabled imaging of the elusive but cardi- nal cardiac anatomy and pathology with a combination of speed and spatial resolution that is hitherto unparalleled by other noninvasive imaging modalities. Accordingly, considerable interest has been directed in recent years at the beneficial utilization of CT for noninvasive interroga- tion of the coronary arteries and for imaging studies of anatomic and functional sequelae of ischemic heart dis- ease, such as cardiac perfusion, motion, and viability. The current and potential future roles of CT for these and other applications are the subject matter of this book.

CT of the Heart, however, does not claim to have all of the answers. CT of the heart is a nascent but rapidly evolv- ing field, and the act of condensing expert knowledge and experience in the format of a book can only result in a snapshot of the status quo at a certain point in time. Novel iterations of existing technology and profoundly new con- cepts of medical imaging are already on the horizon. The benefits and indications of integrating CT into the diag- nostic algorithm of heart disease is intensely researched and discussed: to date, the diagnostic value of CT coro- nary calcium measurements and the exact role of this marker for cardiac risk stratification remain unclear and controversial. We are only beginning to understand the usefulness and potential clinical application of CT angiography for noninvasive detection of coronary artery stenosis. Cross-sectional assessment of the coronary artery wall for noninvasive identification, characteriza- tion, and quantification of atherosclerotic lesions and dis-

ease burden is a promising and exciting but yet untested concept.

Within CT of the Heart, the reader will be exposed to a variety of expert opinions on the respective topics. Some authors will assume a more optimistic or a more conser- vative perspective on cardiac CT applications. Because of the lack of large-scale clinical studies, only future expe- rience will show who may be right. It is a declared goal of this book to showcase the full scope of current develop- ments, research, and scientific controversy regarding the principles and applications of CT of the heart. Truth is most likely to be found in the equilibrium of opinions. The publisher and I have striven to maintain this equilibrium by providing a platform for differing opinions and for different technical approaches to CT of the heart. To miti- gate commercial overtones and bias, which so often accompany the first steps of a potentially important new technology, contributions of users and/or developers of all cardiac CT manufacturers were included. Scientists representing different companies graciously disregarded commercial divisions and agreed to co-author chapters in order to provide the reader with a truly balanced view on cardiac CT technology.

Accordingly, CT of the Heart is the work of many. I am indebted to Dr. Christopher Cannon, the series editor, and to Paul Dolgert of Humana Press for entrusting me with the role of editor. I am grateful to my chairman, Dr. Philip Costello, for his unfailing guidance, support, and friend- ship. I feel very, very honored by all the kindness that my many friends in the cardiac imaging community have shown me by volunteering their time, their knowledge, their experience, and the vision that went into their respec- tive contributions. All authors are highly respected experts in their fields and this book would never have come to pass without their incredible support, for which I am so grateful. Finally I would like to thank Tracy Catanese and Craig Adams of Humana Press for so efficiently and expertly steering the production of CT of the Heart.

U. Joseph Schoepf, ^MD

Charleston, South Carolina

Contents

ix F OREWORD ... v P REFACE ... vii C ONTRIBUTORS ... xi P ART I I NTRODUCTION AND H ISTORICAL

B ACKGROUND

1 CT of the Heart: Past, Present, and Future ... 3 William Stanford

P ART II T ECHNICAL B ACKGROUND

2 Electron Beam CT of the Heart ... 15 David G. Hill

3 Scan Techniques for Cardiac and Coronary Artery Imaging With Multislice CT ... 23 Bernd M. Ohnesorge, Brian R. Westerman,

and U. Joseph Schoepf

4 Image Reconstruction for ECG-Triggered

and ECG-Gated Multislice CT ... 45 Thomas Flohr and Tinsu Pan

5 Phase-Correlated Image Reconstruction

Without ECG ... 55 Marc Kachelriess and Willi A. Kalender

6 Radiation Dose From CT of the Heart ... 63 Cynthia H. McCollough

P ART III D ETECTION AND Q UANTIFICATION OF C ORONARY C ALCIUM

7 Coronary Calcium Screening:

An Epidemiologic Perspective ... 71 Christopher J. O’Donnell and Udo Hoffmann

8 Coronary Calcium Scanning:

Why We Should Perform It ... 79 Axel Schmermund, Stefan Möhlenkamp,

and Raimund Erbel

9 Detection and Quantification of Coronary

Calcium With Electron Beam CT ... 83 Axel Schmermund, Stefan Möhlenkamp,

and Raimund Erbel

10 Detection and Quantification of Coronary

Calcium With Dual-Slice CT ... 91 Joseph Shemesh

11 Detection and Quantification of Calcified Coronary Plaque

With Multidetector-Row CT ... 101 J. Jeffrey Carr

12 Coronary Calcium Scoring With Multidetector-Row CT:

Rationale and Scoring Techniques ... 111 Roman Fischbach and David Maintz

13 Noninvasive Quantification of Coronary Calcium: Quantification Methods, Scanner Types, Scan Protocols,

Accuracy, and Reproducibility ... 129 Stefan Ulzheimer, Kaiss Shanneik,

and Willi A. Kalender

P ART IV C ONTRAST -E NHANCED CT OF THE H EART : M ^{ORPHOLOGY AND} F ^UNCTION

14 CT of the Pericardium ... 145 Reinhard Groell

15 Multidetector-Row CT for Assessment

of Cardiac Valves ... 155 Jürgen K. Willmann and Dominik Weishaupt

16 Multislice CT of the Heart and Great Vessels in Congenital Heart Disease Patients ... 161 Jean-François Paul

17 Imaging of Cardiac and Paracardiac Masses

and Pseudotumors ... 171

Bernd J. Wintersperger

x CONTENTS

18 Multidetector-Row CT Assessment

of Left-Ventricular Function ... 183 Kai Uwe Juergens and Roman Fischbach

19 Imaging Intramyocardial Microcirculatory Function Using Fast Computed

Tomography ... 195 Stefan Möhlenkamp, Axel Schmermund,

Birgit Kantor, Raimund Erbel, and Erik L. Ritman

20 Approaches for Assessing Myocardial

Viability With Multidetector-Row CT ... 207 Yasushi Koyama and Teruhito Mochizuki

P ART V C ONTRAST -E NHANCED CT OF THE H EART : C ^ORONARY A ^RTERIES

21 Anatomy of the Coronary Arteries

and Veins in CT Imaging ... 219 Robert J. M. van Geuns

and Filippo Cademartiri

22 Techniques and Protocols for Acquisition and Display of Contrast-Enhanced CT

Angiography ... 229 Christoph R. Becker

23 Contrast Material Injection Techniques for CT Angiography of the Coronary Arteries ... 237 Filippo Cademartiri and Koen Nieman

24 Visualization Techniques for Contrast- Enhanced CT Angiography

of Coronary Arteries ... 247 Jean-Louis Sablayrolles and Pascal Giat

25 CT Angiography for Assessment of Coronary Artery Anomalies ... 259 Steffen C. Froehner, Matthias Wagner,

Juergen Brunn, and Rainer R. Schmitt 26 Multidetector-Row CT for Assessment

of Kawasaki Disease ... 279 Toru Sakuma and Kunihiko Fukuda

27 Multidetector-Row CT of the Coronary Arteries for Planning of Minimally

Invasive Bypass Surgery ... 287 Christopher Herzog, Selami Dogan, and

Thomas J. Vogl

28 CT Angiography for Assessment of Coronary Bypass Grafts ... 301 Marcello De Santis

29 Contrast-Enhanced Electron Beam CT and Multidetector-Row CT in the Evaluation of Coronary

Stent Patency ... 311 Heiko Pump, Stefan Möhlenkamp,

Raimund Erbel, and Rainer Seibel 30 CT Angiography for the Detection

of Coronary Artery Stenosis ... 321 Koen Nieman and Filippo Cademartiri

31 Complementary Use of Coronary Calcium

Scoring and CT Angiography ... 333 Alexander W. Leber

32 CT vs Magnetic Resonance for Imaging

of the Coronary Arteries ... 339 Armin Huber

P ART VI C ONTRAST -E NHANCED CT OF THE H EART : P RINCIPLES OF A THEROSCLEROSIS AND V ESSEL

W ALL I MAGING

33 Pathology and Pathophysiology of Coronary Atherosclerotic Plaques ... 351 Renu Virmani, Allen P. Burke,

Frank D. Kolodgie, Andrew Farb, Aloke V. Finn, and Herman Gold 34 Pathogenesis of the Vulnerable

Atherosclerotic Plaque ... 365 Masanori Aikawa

35 Multidetector-Row CT Imaging of Clinical and Preclinical Coronary Atherosclerosis ... 377 Christoph R. Becker

36 Multidetector-Row CT vs Intravascular Ultrasound for Coronary Plaque

Characterization ... 381 Axel Kuettner

37 Multidetector-Row CT vs Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Coronary

Plaque Characterization ... 389 Konstantin Nikolaou, Christoph R. Becker,

and Zahi Fayad

38 Multidetector-Row CT for Detection of Noncalcified and Calcified Coronary

Lesions: Clinical Significance ... 399 Stephen Schroeder

I NDEX ... 401

xi

Contributors

M ASANORI A IKAWA , MD , P h D , Cardiovascular Division, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA

C HRISTOPH R. B ECKER , MD , Department of Clinical Radiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany J UERGEN B RUNN , MD , Department of Diagnostic and

Interventional Radiology, Herz- und Gefaess-Klinik GmbH, Bad Neustadt an der Saale, Germany A LLEN P. B URKE , MD , Department of Cardiovascular

Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC

F ILIPPO C ADEMARTIRI , MD , Department of Radiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

J. J EFFREY C ARR , MD , MSCE , Division of

Radiological Sciences and Public Health Sciences, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC

M ARCELLO D E S ANTIS , MD , Department of Radiology, S. Andrea Hospital, Rome, Italy S ELAMI D OGAN , MD , Department of Thoracic and

Cardiovascular Surgery, J. W. Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany

R AIMUND E RBEL , MD , Department of Cardiology, University Clinic Essen, Essen, Germany

A NDREW F ARB , MD , Department of Cardiovascular Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC

Z AHI F AYAD , MD , Zena and Michael A. Wiener Cardiovascular Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY

R OMAN F ISCHBACH , MD , Department of Clinical Radiology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany

A LOKE V. F INN , MD , Cardiac Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA

T HOMAS F LOHR , Division of Computed Tomography, Siemens Medical Solutions, Forchheim, Germany

S TEFFEN C. F ROEHNER , MD , Department of

Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Herz- und Gefaess-Klinik GmbH, Bad Neustadt an der Saale, Germany

K UNIHIKO F UKUDA , MD , Department of Radiology, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan

P ASCAL G IAT , P h D , Division of Computed

Tomography, General Electric Medical Systems, Buc, France

H ERMAN G OLD , MD , Cardiac Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA

R EINHARD G ROELL , MD , Department of Radiology, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria

C HRISTOPHER H ERZOG , MD , Institute for Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, J. W. Goethe

University, Frankfurt, Germany

D AVID G. H ILL , P h D , General Electric Medical Systems, South San Francisco, CA

U DO H OFFMANN , MD , Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA

A RMIN H UBER , MD , Department of Clinical

Radiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany K AI U WE J UERGENS , MD , Department of Clinical

Radiology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany

M ARC K ACHELRIESS , P h D , Institute of Medical Physics, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Nürnberg, Germany

W ILLI A. K ALENDER , P h D , Institute of Medical Physics, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Nürnberg, Germany

B IRGIT K ANTOR , MD , Division of Cardiovascular Diseases and Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN

F RANK D. K OLODGIE , P h D , Department of

Cardiovascular Pathology, Armed Forces Institute

of Pathology, Washington, DC

Y ASUSHI K OYAMA , MD , Department of Cardiology, Ehime Prefectural Imabari Hospital, Ehime, Japan A XEL K UETTNER , MD , Department of Radiology,

University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany A LEXANDER W. L EBER , MD , Medizinische Klinik I,

University Hospital Clinic Munich-Grosshadern, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany C YNTHIA H. M C C OLLOUGH , P h D , Department of

Radiology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN

D AVID M AINTZ , MD , Department of Clinical Radiology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany

A LEXANDER R. M ARGULIS , MD , DS c ( HON ),

Department of Radiology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY

T ERUHITO M OCHIZUKI , MD , Department of Radiology, Ehime University School of Medicine, Ehime, Japan

S TEFAN M ÖHLENKAMP , MD , Department of Cardiology, University Clinic Essen, Essen, Germany

K OEN N IEMAN , MD , Department of Cardiology (Thoraxcenter) and Department of Radiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

K ONSTANTIN N IKOLAOU , MD , Department of Clinical Radiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany, and Zena and Michael A. Wiener Cardiovascular Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY

C HRISTOPHER J. O’D ONNELL , MD , MPH , National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute’s Framingham Heart Study, Framingham, MA, and Cardiology Division, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA

B ERND M. O HNESORGE , P h D , Division of Computed Tomography, Siemens Medical Solutions,

Forchheim, Germany

T INSU P AN , General Electric Medical Systems, Waukesha, WI

J EAN -F RANÇOIS P AUL , MD , Radiology Unit, Marie Lannelongue Hospital, Plessis Robinson, France H EIKO P UMP , MD , Institute of Diagnostic and

Interventional Radiology, University of Witten- Herdecke, Witten-Herdecke, Germany

E RIK L. R ITMAN , MD , P h D Physiological Imaging Research Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN

J EAN -L OUIS S ABLAYROLLES , MD , Centre Cardiologique du Nord, Saint Denis, France

T ORU S AKUMA , MD , Department of Radiology, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan A XEL S CHMERMUND , MD , Department of Cardiology,

University Clinic Essen, Essen, Germany

R AINER R. S CHMITT , MD , Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Herz- und Gefaess- Klinik GmbH, Bad Neustadt an der Saale, Germany U. J OSEPH S CHOEPF , MD , Department of Radiology,

Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC S TEPHEN S CHROEDER , MD , P h D • Division of

Cardiology, Eberhard-Karls-Universität, Tübingen, Germany

R AINER S EIBEL , MD , Institute of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, University of Witten- Herdecke, Witten-Herdecke, Germany

K AISS S HANNEIK , MS c , Institute of Medical Physics, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Nürnberg, Germany

J OSEPH S HEMESH , MD , Department of Cardiology, The Grace Ballas Cardiac Research Unit, Sheba Medical Center, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv, Israel

W ILLIAM S TANFORD , MD , Division of Chest and Cardiovascular Radiology, Department of

Radiology, Ray J. and Lucille A. Carver University of Iowa College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA

S TEFAN U LZHEIMER , P h D , Division of Computed Tomography, Siemens Medical Solutions, Forchheim, Germany

R OBERT J. M. VAN G EUNS , MD , Department of Radiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

R ENU V IRMANI , MD , Department of Cardiovascular Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC

T HOMAS J. V OGL , MD , Institute for Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, J. W. Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany

M ATTHIAS W AGNER , MD , Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Herz- und Gefaess- Klinik GmbH, Bad Neustadt an der Saale, Germany D OMINIK W EISHAUPT , MD , Institute of Diagnostic

Radiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

B RIAN R. W ESTERMAN , P h D , Division of Computed Tomography, Toshiba Medical Solutions, Los Angeles, CA

J ÜRGEN K. W ILLMANN , MD , Institute of Diagnostic Radiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

B ERND J. W INTERSPERGER , MD , Department of Clinical Radiology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany

xii CONTRIBUTORS