DEFYING THE ODDS OF RECIDIVISM: EX-OFFENDERS’ NARRATIVES OF DESISTANCE
by
MBONGISENI MDAKANE
Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in the subject
PSYCHOLOGY
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR M. E. FOURIE
OCTOBER 2016
DECLARATION
I, Mbongiseni Mdakane, declare that Defying the odds of recidivism: Ex-offenders’ narratives of desistance is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.
... ...
SIGNATURE DATE
M.MDAKANE
ABSTRACT
When conducting research on crime, scholars are generally inclined to focus on the aetiology, hence our comprehension of biological and/or environmental factors as antecedents of crime.
In this study, however, acknowledgement was given to ex-offenders who, once released from prison showed positive signs of disengagement from crime and posed the following questions: what are the lived experiences of ex-offenders who desist from crime and what are the reasons influencing their decisions to stop offending? Four adult male ex-offenders of African descent between the ages of 30 and 42 participated in the study. The researcher, inspired by his insider position as an ex-offender aimed to explore and describe the lived experiences of other ex-offenders who had stopped offending, or who were in the process of disengaging from crime. An interpretive phenomenological approach including three theories of criminal desistance were used to ground the study. Data were collected via semi-structured interviews and analysed thematically. Results showed that the processes of criminal desistance are unique and contextual, particular rather than universal, and that change can be attributed to intra-individual factors facilitated by strong quality social bonds.
KEY TERMS
South Africa; Criminal Justice System; Criminal Desistance; Incarceration; Interpretive Phenomenology; Recidivism; Correctional Service; Rehabilitation; Offender Reintegration;
Prison; Offender Re-entry Programmes
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the Almighty God for giving me the mental strength and agility, the wisdom and the guidance to complete this study.
A number of key role players also contributed in ensuring that I successfully complete this study and rightfully so, I would like to acknowledge their invaluable support:
My new family, the Inside-out Outside-in South African Interests Group for believing in me.
The ex-offenders who participated in this study especially for sharing their valuable knowledge and life experiences.
Professor M. E. Fourie, my supervisor, for his guidance, support, patience and words of encouragement.
Professor M. Terre Blanche, for being the engine behind my thinking. I believe I have grown immensely under your guidance and mentorship,
Mr D J Kruger for the countless times you have rescued me when I was stuck and did not know what ought to be done.
Professor P. Segalo for your continued support, advice and guidance,
Dr A. Fynn for providing the grounding for this dissertation and for always inspiring me to
“keep going”.
I would also like to thank the following two people, Joanna Curwen and Leonie van der Linde for editing this dissertation.
The Marc programme for their research workshops which sharpened my research skills and the placement opportunities which further facilitated my growth, the facilitators, administrators and including my former classmates,
Department of Psychology for approving the study,
Unisa as an institution for granting me a bursary to finance my studies,
My family, especially my mother for her words of encouragement and for always rallying behind me and uplifting my spirits.
Lethukukhanya Nhlapo for being there when I needed you the most,
My friends and colleagues, Gaogalalelwe Katide, Hugo van der Walt, Milton Thekiso, Collen
Sithole, Linda Nhlapo, and Hosea Madingoane for their continued support and
encouragement.
…societies that do not believe that offenders can change will get offenders who do not believe that they can change.
Shadd Maruna
Dedication
I dedicate this study to my mother Mavis Mdakane, my daughter Lebogang, my unborn son Angel-Yethu
and the rest of my family.
ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS ANC: African National Congress
DCS: Department of Correctional Services CJS: Criminal Justice System
SAPS: South African Police Service
ESRC: Economic and Social Research Council NIJ: National Institute of Justice
SA: South Africa US: United States
USA: United States of America
NGO: Non-governmental Organisation
NICRO: National Institute for Crime Prevention and Reintegration of Offenders SES: Socio-Economic Status
UNISA: University of South Africa
IPA: Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis
VOD: Victim Offender Dialogue
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 ... 1
Introduction to the study ... 1
Introduction ... 1
Background to the research problem ... 2
Rationale of the study ... 3
Significance of the study ... 4
Aims of the study ... 5
Statement of the problem ... 5
Research strategy and research methods ... 5
Ethical considerations ... 7
Demarcation of the study ... 8
Definition of concepts ... 8
Outline of the study ... 9
Chapter summary ... 9
Chapter 2 ... 10
Literature review and theoretical framework ... 10
Introduction ... 10
The definition of criminal desistance ... 10
Theoretical explanations of criminal desistance... 11
Age-graded informal social control theory ... 12
Theory of cognitive transformation ... 13
Identity theory of criminal desistance ... 14
Psychosocial factors implicated in the desistance process... 16
Marriage ... 16
Employment ... 18
Spirituality and/or religion ... 19
Families and communities as providers of social capital ... 21
Significance of critical events ... 22
Age and desistance from crime ... 23
Challenges inherent in the desistance process ... 25
Structural limitations ... 26
Individual obstacles ... 27
Delinquent friendships as obstacles ... 28
Financial obstacles ... 28
The role of the criminal justice system in the desistance of South African offenders ... 29
The process of releasing offenders from prison ... 31
The transition from prison to community ... 32
Offender re-entry/social reintegration ... 33
The three categories of ex-offenders ... 34
Category one offenders ... 35
Category two offenders ... 36
Category three offenders ... 36
Limitations and challenges facing offender re-entry initiatives ... 37
What seems to work in offender re-entry? ... 38
Chapter summary ... 39
Chapter 3 ... 41
Research design and method... 41
Introduction ... 41
Overview of the research process ... 41
Perspective from an insider-outsider position ... 43
Rationale for using qualitative approach ... 46
Rationale for using interpretive phenomenology (phenomenological-hermeneutics) ... 48
Data collection ... 50
Selection of study participants: criteria for inclusion ... 51
Study participants ... 53
Participant information at the time of the interviews ... 54
Participants’ lived experiences ... 57
Setting up the interviews ... 59
During the interviews ... 59
Transcribing the interviews... 61
Data analysis ... 62
Ethical considerations ... 64
Measures of trustworthiness ... 65
Chapter summary ... 67
Chapter 4 ... 69
Results and discussion ... 69
Introduction ... 69
The questioning self: who am I, what am I doing here? ... 70
The impact of incarceration on the self ... 72
Identity transformation ... 74
Change starts from “within” ... 76
Re-writing the past: where to from now, the journey to self-discovery ... 79
Enduring a painful process of change ... 82
The pains of imprisonment ... 84
The concept of time ... 87
Criminal record as “death sentence” ... 91
Key life events/critically significant events ... 94
On becoming ... 96
Employment as breakthrough ... 98
Education as coping mechanism ... 100
Marriage as a turning point ... 103
Parenthood ... 106
Families as institutions of reform ... 110
Religiosity and/or spirituality as a catalyst for change ... 114
Digging deep ... 117
Discovering one’s true potential ... 119
Willpower to change ... 121
Actions versus discourses of positive change ... 123
All in the past ... 125
Disguised blessing ... 127
Looking back: incarceration as character-building ... 129
A strong sense of achievement ... 131
Chapter summary ... 134
Chapter 5 ... 135
Conclusion, limitations and recommendations ... 135
Introduction ... 135
Conclusion and executive summary ... 135
Limitations of the study ... 140
Recommendations for future research... 142
Reflections ... 143
Chapter summary ... 145
References ... 146 Appendices ... 159