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APPENDICE A Forma dei verbi modali

Tra i verbi modali figurano can / could / must / may, ecc. Il loro uso è illustrato alle Units 38-47.

Essi hanno generalmente la stessa struttura:

I / you / he / she / it / we / you / they + modale + verbo senza to senza -s senza -ing La maggior parte dei verbi modali ha anche queste forme:

I / you / he / she / it / we / you / they + modale + verbo in -ing: You must be joking.

I / you / he / she / it / we / you / they + modale + have + participio passato:

They must have arrived.

Alcuni verbi modali o simili ai modali si usano con to + verbo:

I was able to help. I ought to work. He has to / They have to work.

They need to work. (È possibile la forma negativa di need / needs senza to.)

Ecco un riepilogo delle forme dei verbi modali. La tabella presenta le negazioni alla forma contratta: mustn’t piuttosto che must not. Nei casi in cui una forma sia rara o non esista è stato lasciato uno spazio bianco.

Modali ausiliari

Non è possibile combinare questi verbi. Per esempio I will must è sbagliato.

MODALE AFFERMAZIONE DOMANDA NEGAZIONE

can I can swim. Can she swim? They can’t swim.

She can’t be swimming.

They can’t have swum

the Channel.*

could They could swim. Could you help me? We couldn’t do it.

She could be swimming. Could she be working? He couldn’t be joking.

They could have done it.* Could you have done it?* He couldn’t have waited.*

must I must work. Must you work? I mustn’t work.

He must be working.

She must have worked hard.* –

may She may arrive soon. May I help? They may not pay me.

He may be phoning at 9. They may not be coming.

We may have won.* They may not have seen it.*

might Come may eccetto per il fatto che esistono tutte e tre le forme interrogative e la forma negativa contratta mightn’t.

would/ Come might: le forme negative contratte sono wouldn’t e shouldn’t.

should

ought to I ought to help. Ought he to be here? She oughtn’t to say that.

He ought to be studying. Ought he to be smoking? I oughtn’t to be drinking.

She ought to have done it.* Ought I to have told her?* I oughtn’t to have done it.*

* Si può usare anche una forma al Perfect Continuous, per esempio:

They can’t have been swimming hard.

C B A

I

APPENDICI

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Verbi modali che hanno anche struttura regolare

Si possono usare need e dare come modali – he needn’t worry – ma anche come verbi principali – He doesn’t need to worry. / We’ll need to finish.

Questa tabella illustra solo presente, passato e futuro.

MODALE AFFERMAZIONE DOMANDA NEGAZIONE

need I need to drink. Does he need to know? They don’t need to stay.

o They needn’t stay.

I needed to do it. Did you need to go there? She didn’t need to hurry.

She needn’t have hurried.

I’ll need to move Will she need to see me? They won’t need to know.

next year.

dare He dares (to) refuse. Does he dare (to) climb it? He doesn’t dare (to) fight.

o Dare she do it? o She daren’t fight.

He dared (to) enter. Did he dare (to) do it? They didn’t dare (to) fight.

They’ll dare to do it. Will they dare (to) help us? She won’t dare (to) come.

Be able to / have to

Questi verbi hanno un significato analogo a can e must (vedi Units 38, 39, 43) e coprono l’intera gamma dei tempi verbali. Es. I’ll have to do it. / Have you been able to give up?

Questa tabella illustra solo presente, passato e futuro.

be able to I’m able to help. Are you able to solve it? She isn’t able to do it.

They were able to help. Was he able to do it? I wasn’t able to come.

I’ll soon be able to do it. Will she be able to come? He won’t be able to help.

have to He has to study. Do we have to do it? I don’t have to help.

Yesterday, I had to work. Did they have to go? She didn’t have to salute.

Tomorrow, I’ll have to work. Will she have to leave? They won’t have to stay.

II

APPENDICI

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III

APPENDICE B Verbi di stato e di azione

Questi sono i verbi di statopiù comuni. (Vedi Unit 120.)

Questi verbi non si usanodi norma nei tempi progressivi(o Continuous).

Verbi che esprimono amore / odio, ecc.:

adore desire hate like love mind (‘dispiacere’) prefer Verbi che esprimono bisogno:

need want

Verbi che esprimono comprensione, ecc.:

know realise (‘rendersi conto’) believe suppose understand Verbi di percezione:

hear notice see look as if (‘sembrare’) seem sound Verbi di possesso:

belong (‘appartenere’) have (nel significato di ‘possedere’ – vedi Unit 8) own (‘possedere’) E inoltre:

cost depend fit (‘adattarsi ’ / ‘andar bene’) include matter (‘importare’) mean (‘intendere ’ / ‘significare’)

Alcuni verbi sono verbi di statoin alcune situazioni ma verbi di azionein altre:

VERBO STATO AZIONE

have They have a lot of friends. They are having a party.

Hanno molti amici. Danno una festa.

hope I hope you are well. I’m hoping to visit London.

Spero che tu stia bene. Spero di visitare Londra. (ci sto ragionando) feel It feels smooth. Al tatto è liscio. I’m feeling sad. Mi sento triste.

forget He forgets everything. He’s forgetting about her.

Dimentica tutto. Se la sta togliendo dalla testa.

look She looks tired. She’s looking at the painting.

Sembra stanca. Sta guardando il quadro.

remember He remembers her. He has trouble remembering her.

La ricorda. Ha problemi a ricordarsi di lei.

smell The roses smell nice. She’s smelling the roses.

Le rose hanno un buon odore. Sta annusando le rose.

taste It tastes good. Ha un buon sapore. He’s tasting the wine. Sta assaggiando il vino.

think I think he’s Spanish. I am thinking… Sto meditando…

Ritengo che sia spagnolo.

Alcuni verbi si possono usare al Present Continuous o al Present Simple senza differenze significative di senso:

ache My tooth aches. oppure My tooth is aching.

expect He expects to pass the exam. oppure He’s expecting to pass the exam.

hope I hope you are well. oppure I’m hoping to visit London.

hurt My knee hurts. oppure My knee is hurting.

look He looks ill. oppure He’s looking ill.

look forward to I look forward to seeing you. oppure I’m looking forward to seeing you.

APPENDICI

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APPENDICE C American English e British English

Esistono alcune differenze tra American English e British English, benché in generale essi siano molto simili.

ORTOGRAFIA

Tra le differenze figurano:

traveling / traveled / traveler / travelling / travelled / traveller / canceling / canceled, ecc. cancelling / cancelled, ecc.

-or: color / honor / humor / labor -our: colour / honour / humour / favorite / glamor, ecc. labour / favourite / glamour, ecc.

-ter: center / meter / kilometer, ecc. -tre: centre / metre / kilometre, ecc.

-ize: organize / realize / recognize -ise: organise / realise / recognise (-ise è preferibile ma -ize è accettato)

-am: program -amme: programme

-se: defense / license / offense -ce: defence / licence / offence Altre differenze ortografiche riguardano queste parole:

check (come in: a check for $250) cheque gray grey jewelry jewellery pajamas pyjamas

specialty speciality

story (piano di un edificio) storey

tire (pneumatico) tyre

Solo ed esclusivamente in situazioni informali, gli americani tendono ad usare uno spelling non standard, come nel caso di nite al posto di night, gonna al posto di going to (vedi Unit 31), wanna per want to.

VOCABOLARIO

Ci sono alcune differenze lessicali tra American e British English, tra cui:

PAROLA O ESPRESSIONE NEGLI USA SIGNIFICA: IN GRAN BRETAGNA SIGNIFICA:

a bill una banconota a dollar bill il conto di un ristorante, di una riparazione dumb stupido That’s a dumb idea! incapace di parlare

first floor pianterreno primo piano, sopra il pianterreno a flat forato (rif. a pneumatico) appartamento He lives in a nice flat.

gas carburante per auto He filled He uses gas not electricity for the car at the gas station. cooking and heating.

mad arrabbiato folle It’s a mad idea.

She’s really mad with him.

mean cattivo, crudele avaro

The robber was mean.

pants pantaloni slip, mutandine

purse borsa da donna borsellino

vest panciotto maglia intima

to wash up lavarsi le mani lavare i piatti

IV

APPENDICI

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V

APPENDICI

In altri casi, americani e britannici identificano lo stesso oggetto con parole distinte:

NEGLI USA SI CHIAMA: IN GRAN BRETAGNA SI CHIAMA:

aereo airplane aeroplane

antenna antenna aerial

portafoglio billfold wallet

dolciume candy sweets

armadio closet cupboard

società company firm, company

pannolino (per bambino) diaper nappy

biscotto cookie biscuit

mais corn sweetcorn, maize

ambulatorio doctor’s office surgery

ascensore elevator lift

autunno fall / autumn autumn

rubinetto faucet tap

torcia elettrica flashlight torch

autostrada freeway motorway

patatine fritte french fries chips

spazzatura garbage, trash rubbish

vagabondo hobo tramp

intervallo intermission interval

targa (di automobile) license plate number plate patatine fritte in sacchetti potato chips crisps

ferrovia railroad railway

toilette (pubblica) rest room (public) toilet

marciapiede sidewalk pavement

liscio (bevande) straight neat (drink)

metropolitana subway underground

fornello stove cooker

autocarro truck lorry

baule trunk boot

sottopassaggio underpass subway

vacanza vacation holiday

lettera ‘Z’ zee (= lettera “Z”) zed

cerniera zipper zip

Generalmente, britannici e americani comunicano e si comprendono senza problemi. In molti casi, l’uso americano si trova anche nel British English, come nel caso di truck al posto di lorry o French fries al posto di chips.

PRONUNCIA

Tra le maggiori differenze si segnalano:

• parole che nel British English si pronunciano con una ‘o’ [ɒ] breve labializzata, si pronunciano con un suono vocalico più lungo nell’American English (come ‘a’ [ɑ] in father e ‘au’ [ɔ] in caught).

Per esempio: dog, gone, off.

• nell’American English la lettera ‘r’ di solito si pronuncia anche se è muta nel British English.

Per esempio in car, farmer, turn, wear.

• la pronuncia americana [u] in genere sostituisce quella britannica [ju].

Per esempio: new (US: [nu] GB: [nju]) tune (US: [tun] GB: [tjun])

Alcuni accenti regionali americani possono essere più simili al British English ‘standard’ di altri.

Riferimenti

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