Jaw Infections

Introduction

Dental caries, periodontal disease and apical peri- odontitis (periapical granuloma, abscess, or cyst) are common pathologic conditions and usually restrict- ed to the region of the teeth and adjacent bone. These conditions are most often adequately assessed by intraoral or panoramic radiography. Infection also appears as condensing or sclerosing osteitis fre- quently defined as a localized form of osteomyelitis but usually limited to the periapical region of the mandibular molars. However, other and larger areas of jaw bone may become infected as a direct exten- sion from a common odontogenic infection, or as a result trauma, large doses of therapeutic radiation, and hematogenous spread from a distant site. Most cases of jaw osteomyelitis are nonspecific infections (in contrast to osteomyelitis in other parts of skele- ton), but specific types such as tuberculosis and actinomycosis may occur.

When infection develops in jaw bone marrow as an osteomyelitis or in surrounding soft tissues as an abscess, advanced imaging in particular CT, may be of great diagnostic value as a supplement to projec- tional (conventional or digital) radiography.

Osteomyelitis

Definition

Inflammatory process accompanied by bone destruc- tion and caused by infecting microorganisms.

The infection can be limited to a single portion of bone or can involve several regions including mar- row, cortex, periosteum, and surrounding soft tissue.

Clinical Features

▬ Mandible far more often than maxilla

▬ Acute form presents with severe symptoms, chronic form with vague or no symptoms, but episodes of exacerbation

▬ Pain and swelling, may be variable

▬ Regional lymphadenopathy, fever, malaise

▬ Mobile teeth sensitive to percussion

▬ Fistula draining of pus

▬ Paresthesia in lower lip (mental nerve)

▬ Trismus if masticatory muscles are infiltrated

▬ Enlargement of mandible; jaw asymmetry

▬ Usually odontogenic infectious etiology, but idio- pathic, chronic, nonsuppurative forms may occur in adults, children or adolescents

Imaging Features

▬ Initial blurring of bone trabeculae

▬ Ill-defined (‘moth-eaten’) osteolytic areas, appar- ently interspersed by normal bone

▬ Sequestrum; fragment of necrotic bone

▬ Involucrum; sequestrum surrounded by viable bone

▬ Periosteal bone formation;‘onion skin’ appearance

▬ Mixture of ill-defined osteolytic and ill-defined osteosclerotic areas

▬ Completely radiopaque areas

▬ T1-weighted MRI: reduced signal from bone mar- row

▬ T2-weighted and STIR MRI: high signal from bone marrow

▬ T1-weighted post-Gd MRI: contrast enhancement of bone marrow and adjacent soft tissue

▬ T1-weighted, T2-weighted, and STIR MRI: low sig- nal from sequestra

Comment

From a radiologic point of view, three types of osteomyelitis may be distinguished: rarefying or destructive (suppurative) osteomyelitis, diffuse scle- rosing osteomyelitis, and osteomyelitis with periosti- tis. A mixture of these types is common

Chapter 5 119

Jaw Infections

Figure 5.1

Osteomyelitis, mandible; 58-year- old male with pain and peri- mandibular swelling. A Panoram- ic view shows diffuse bone destruction caudad to molars (ar- row), and suspected sequestrum caudad to premolars (arrow).

B Axial CT image shows destruc- tion from widened mental fora- men (upper arrow) to molar area and defects in lingual cortical bone, but no sequestrum. Note small buccal periosteal reaction in molar region (arrow)

A

B

Chapter 5 121 Jaw Infections

Figure 5.2

Osteomyelitis, mandible; 46-year- old female with previous pain from molar that was extracted, but still pain and additionally, pe- rimandibular swelling.A Panoram- ic view shows diffuse bone de- struction (arrows). B Axial CT image shows diffuse destruction of buccal cortical bone (arrow) and sequestrum (arrowhead) A

B

Figure 5.3

Osteomyelitis, mandible; 68-year- old female with pain, mandibular cellulitis, and diffuse swelling in neck. Axial CT image shows

’moth-eaten’ and extensive infec-

tion bilaterally (arrows)

A

B

C D

Chapter 5 123 Jaw Infections

Figure 5.4

Osteomyelitis, mandible; 25-year-old female with molar extracted after unsuccessful endodontic therapy, but progression of mandibular infection despite antibiotic therapy, little pain. A Panoramic view shows bone destruction in molar area with diffuse sclerotic bone (arrow). B Panoramic view about 1 year later shows healing in alveolar bone, but progression of bone de- struction in caudad areas (arrow), with ’honey-bobble’

appearance that required a tumor diagnosis to be ruled out. C Axial CT image shows severe bone destruction, with cortical defect (arrow), but no periosteal reaction.

D Axial CT image shows multilocular appearance in low- er mandibular border and sclerosis (arrow). E Axial T1-weighted pre-Gd MRI shows reduced signal in bone marrow (arrow).F Axial T1-weighted post-Gd MRI shows contrast enhancement (arrow). G Coronal STIR MRI shows intense signal in bone marrow (arrow). Surgical decortication confirmed osteomyelitis and no tumor

E F

G

Figure 5.5

Osteomyelitis with spread to masseter muscle; 55-year- old male with variable swelling in parotid and cheek area after tooth extraction many months previously; no pain. A Panoramic view shows sclerotic mandible with small destruction (arrow). B Coronal CT image shows buccal cortical destruction (arrow). C Axial CT image shows buccolingual destruction (arrow) and slight pe- riosteal reaction lingually (arrow). D Axial T2-weighted MRI shows focus of increased signal surrounded by low signal rim in masseter muscle, consistent with encapsu- lated abscess (arrow). E Axial T1-weighted pre-Gd MRI shows intermediate signal (arrow). F Axial T1-weighted post-Gd MRI shows contrast enhancement (arrow) A

B C

E D

F

Chapter 5 125 Jaw Infections

A

B C

D Figure 5.6

Osteomyelitis, mandible; 72-year-old female with vari- able, but little pain and variable swelling 3 years after teeth extraction, now with mental nerve paresthesia.

A Panoramic view shows diffuse sclerotic changes (ar- row), and small focus of bone destruction (arrowhead).

B Axial CT image shows diffuse, extensive sclerotic changes in right mandible, crossing midline. C Coronal CT through mental foramina shows severe bone de- struction on right side (arrow), explaining paresthesia.

D Axial CT 7 years later still shows sclerotic osteo-

myelitis, now with exacerbation and sequestration

(arrowheads)

Osteomyelitis with Periostitis

Synonyms: Periostitis ossificans, proliferative periostitis

Definition

Osteomyelitis with dominating periosteal new bone formation.

Clinical Features

▬ Mostly in children and young adults

▬ Unilateral hard swelling of jaw, asymmetry

▬ May be bilateral

▬ Symptoms usually vague

▬ Predominantly in mandible

Imaging Features

▬ Cortical expansion by periosteal bone formation;

buccal, lingual, inferior aspects

▬ Characteristic ‘onion skin’ appearance

▬ Usually also bone destruction

Chapter 5 127 Jaw Infections

Figure 5.7

Osteomyelitis with periostitis, mandible; 7-year-old female with variable perimandibular swelling, painless, probably caused by trauma against mandible 1 month before. A Panoramic view shows no abnormalities except slight periosteal reaction (arrow) (not noted until later examinations were performed). B Panoramic view 2 months after trauma shows more clearly periosteal reaction (arrow). C Axial CT image shows severe periosteal reaction buccally (arrow).D Coronal CT image shows sclerotic mandible with thickness almost twice normal (arrow), with radiolucent mandibular canal (arrow- head)

A

B

C D

Figure 5.8

Osteomyelitis with periostitis, mandible; 12-year-old female with three weeks history of gingival swelling that begun less than a week after orthodontic adjust- ment of braces. A Panoramic view shows diffuse de- struction in premolar area (arrow). B Axial CT image shows bone destruction and periosteal reaction in pre- molar area (arrow). C Axial CT image shows periosteal reaction caudad to teeth (arrow). D Axial CT, soft tissue window, shows diffuse soft tissue swelling consistent with inflammatory infiltrate (arrow)

A

B

D

C

Chapter 5 129 Jaw Infections

Figure 5.9

Osteomyelitis with periostitis, mandible; 8-year-old male with variable right perimandibular swelling and pain for some months. A Panoramic view shows periosteal reaction (arrow). B Axial CT image shows destruction of buccal bone at second molar germ (arrow). C Axial CT image shows extensive periosteal bone, buccally and lingually (arrows)

A

B C

Figure 5.10

Osteomyelitis with periostitis, mandible; 10-year-old female with variable facial swelling and restricted mouth opening capacity.A Coronal CT image shows pe- riosteal reaction buccally and lingually (arrows). B Coro- nal CT image shows periosteal reaction caudad for semilunar incisure (arrow). C Coronal CT show extensive reaction in coronoid process (arrow)

Figure 5.11

Osteomyelitis with bilateral periostitis, mandible; 11-year-old female with variable pain and mouth opening capacity for about 6 months, believed to be caused by juvenile arthritis.A Coronal CT image shows extensive periosteal bone bilater- ally in ramus (arrows). B Axial CT image shows characteristic ’onion skin’ periosteal bone (arrow)

A

C

B

A B

Chapter 5 131 Jaw Infections

Figure 5.12

Osteomyelitis with periostitis, mandible; 16-year-old female with a 2-year history of infection, with development of facial asymmetry after unsuccessful endodontic treatment of first and second molars that eventually were extracted. A Axial CT image shows sclerotic and thickened mandibular bone (arrow). B Axial CT image, 1-year follow-up, shows smaller areas of bone destruction.C Axial CT image, 2-year follow-up, shows larger areas of bone destruction (arrow). D Coronal STIR MRI, 2-year follow-up, shows high signal consistent with active inflammation (arrow)

A B

D

C

Figure 5.13

Osteomyelitis with periostitis, mandible; 25-year-old female with a 4-year history of infection; after a 3-year period of silence because of antibiotic and hyperbaric oxygenic treatment, pain in right cheek. A Coronal CT image shows sclerotic, thickened ramus (arrow). B Coro- nal CT, 3-year follow-up, shows area of bone destruction (arrow). C Coronal STIR MRI shows high signal in ramus (arrow). D Axial T1-weighted pre-Gd MRI shows reduced signal in bone marrow (arrow). E Axial T1-weighted post-Gd MRI shows contrast enhancement consistent with inflammatory activity (arrow). Surgical interven- tion confirmed inflammatory activity (granulation tis- sue)

A B

D C

E

Chapter 5 133 Jaw Infections

Osteosclerosis, idiopathic

Figure 5.14

Osteosclerosis, idiopathic, mandible; 11-year-old female with perimandibular pain after extraction of a tooth germ, and suspected osteomyelitis. Patient had an unclassified congenital anomaly with generalized osteosclerosis.A Axial CT im- age shows thick, sclerotic mandibular body but no foci of bone destruction (arrow). B Coronal CT image shows thick cor- tical bone but no periosteal bone (arrow).C Coronal STIR MRI shows intermediate–low signal in ramus (arrow).D Axial T1- weighted pre-Gd MRI shows reduced signal in marrow (arrow). E Axial T1-weighted post-Gd MRI shows no contrast enhancement (arrow). F Coronal T1-weighted post-Gd MRI shows no contrast enhancement (arrow). Extraction wound eventually healed, and patient was asymptomatic with a thick, dense mandible consistent with idiopathic osteosclerosis

A B

D C

F

E

Osteoradionecrosis

Definition

Several proposed. One most frequently used is ‘area of exposed bone larger than 1 cm in field of irradia- tion that has failed to show any evidence of healing for at least 6 months’.

An alternative is ‘radiologic evidence of bone necrosis within radiation field where tumor recur- rence has been excluded’, also including cases with intact oral mucosa.

Clinical Features

▬ Mandible far more often than maxilla

▬ Wide spectrum; acute/chronic, nonsuppurative/suppurative

▬ Pain or no pain

▬ Exposed bone frequent, but also soft tissue cover

▬ In advanced stage: trismus, fistula, pathologic frac- ture

▬ Similar condition has been reported after bispho- sphonate therapy in patients who are not irradiat- ed

Imaging Features

▬ Mainly destructive; cancellous and/or cortical bone

▬ Mixture of radiolucent and radiopaque appearance

▬ Unilateral or bilateral

▬ Usually without periosteal reaction

▬ Advanced stage: sequestration, pathologic frac- ture

▬ T1-weighted MRI: reduced signal in bone marrow

▬ T2-weighted and STIR MRI: high signal in marrow

▬ T1-weighted post-Gd MRI: contrast enhancement

▬ T1-weighted, T2-weighted, and STIR MRI: low sig-

nal from sequestra

Chapter 5 135 Jaw Infections

Figure 5.15

Osteoradionecrosis, mandible; 79-year-old male with hemimandible resection due to extensive abnormali- ties and severe symptoms. A Axial CT image shows se- vere destruction of left mandibular body (arrow). B 3D CT image shows severe destruction of buccal cortical bone (arrow). C Surgical specimen with destruction (ar- row) corresponding to 3D CT image presentation (cour- tesy of Dr. G. Støre, Rikshospitalet University Hospital, Oslo, Norway)

A

C

B

Figure 5.16

Osteoradionecrosis, mandible and maxilla; 55-year-old male 2 years after hemimaxillectomy and radiation of adenoid cystic carcinoma. Denture could not be re- moved (see arrow head in D). A Panoramic view shows destructive changes bilaterally (arrows). B Axial CT im- age shows evident bilateral destruction with sequestra (arrows). C Axial CT image shows more severe buccal de- struction on right side (arrow). D Axial CT maxilla shows severe destruction of palatal alveolar bone (arrows).

E Axial T1-weighted pre-Gd MRI shows reduced signal in bone marrow. F Axial T1-weighted post-Gd MRI shows bi- lateral contrast enhancement of bone marrow (arrows) A

B C

E D

F

Chapter 5 137 Jaw Infections

Abscess

Definition

Collection of pus in bone or soft tissue.

Clinical Features

▬ Swelling, pain

▬ Redness, warmth

▬ Trismus

▬ Fever, malaise

▬ Swallowing problems

▬ Breath problems

Imaging Features

▬ Bone destruction if infection is in bone

▬ Round or lobulated soft-tissue structure with en- hancing peripheral rim and hypodense (necrotic) center

▬ T2-weighted MRI and STIR: high-signal center surrounded by low-signal periphery

▬ T1-weighted pre-Gd MRI: intermediate signal

▬ T1-weighted post-Gd MRI: no contrast enhance- ment except periphery

▬ A phlegmon or cellulitis will enhance diffusely and entirely

Figure 5.17

Abscess, submandibular; 22-month old male with history of left neck mass, strep throat, and fever.A Axial CT image, soft- tissue window, shows anterior and lateral to left submandibular gland a hypodense nodular, circular structure surround- ed by hyperintense rim (arrow). B Axial CT image, soft-tissue window, shows abscess (arrow) surrounded by diffuse infil- tration in fat planes, and scattered cervical lymphadenopathy. Normal bone structures were seen.

A B

Figure 5.18

Abscess, parapharyngeal; 24-year-old female with pha- ryngeal swelling after extraction of infected third molar.

A Panoramic view shows tooth socket (arrowhead) and infectious first molar in maxilla. B Axial CT image, soft- tissue window, shows abscess from tooth socket, extending parapharyngeally (arrows). C Axial CT image, soft-tissue window, shows parapharyngeal abscess narrowing air space (arrow)

A

C

,B

Chapter 5 139 Jaw Infections

Figure 5.19

Abscess,parapharyngeal; 36-year-old male with swelling of face from orbit to neck from mandibular osteo- myelitis. A Axial CT image shows soft-tissue swelling in masticator, submandibular, submental, and parapha- ryngeal spaces, as well as tonsillar region (arrows).

B Axial CT image, soft-tissue window, shows parapha- ryngeal abscess (asterisk) and edema in floor of mouth and around pharynx (note canula in place), which is dis- placed. C Axial CT image, soft-tissue window, shows abscess at level of hyoid bone (arrow)

A

C

B

Figure 5.20

Abscess, parapharyngeal; 29-year-old female with infected third molar in mandible extracted 1 week previously and his- tory of lateral pharyngeal wall infection, large perimandibular swelling, swelling in floor of mouth, and air breathing prob- lems. A Coronal CT image shows tooth socket (arrow) and infectious root also on contralateral side. B Coronal CT image shows destruction of lingual cortical plate below attachment of mylohyoid muscle (arrow).C Axial CT, soft-tissue window, shows abscess lingual to tooth socket (arrow) and diffuse edema in entire floor of mouth, closure of airspace and canula in place.D Coronal CT image, soft-tissue window, shows large abscess in masticator, submandibular and parapharyngeal spaces with closure of airspace (arrows). Enlarged lymph nodes (more than 1 cm) were seen

A B

D

C

Chapter 5 141 Jaw Infections

Suggested Reading

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J Craniomaxillofac Surg 32:43–50

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Figure 5.21

Abscess in cheek; 31-year-old female with dental infection with pain and swelling in palate and cheek (history of multi- ple dental abscesses). A Coronal CT image shows soft-tissue swelling in the palate, small gas collections close to alveolar process and abscess in cheek (arrow).B Coronal CT image 4 years later shows normal cheek (possibly some scar tissue)

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