Task Force on Rescue – Rescue Techniques
Task Force on Rescue
Section editors: Chris Brewster and Rob Brons
5.1
Overview 194
Chris Brewster and Rob Brons 5.2
Recommendations 197
Chris Brewster and Rob Brons 5.3
Patterns of Wave and Surf 202 Edward Zwitser
5.4
Water Safety Signs and Beach Safety Flags 204 Brian Sims
5.5
Lifesaver Surveillance and Scanning:
Past, Present, Future 214 Peter Fenner, Tom Griffiths, Michael Oostman and Frank Pia 5.6
Trends in Sea Rescue
and Open Water Search Techniques 220 Michael Woodroffe and Gabriel Kinney 5.7
Lifejackets and Other Lifesaving Appliances 226 5.7.1
Lifejackets 226
Chris Brooks, Günther Cornelissen and Rolf Popp 5.7.2
Personal Lifesaving Appliances Other than Lifejackets 229
Ivar Grøneng
5.8.1
Self-Rescue During Accidental Cold Water Immersion 232 Michel Ducharme
5.8.2
Survival and Self-Rescue 235 Anthony Handley
5.9
Submerged Vehicle Rescue 238 Jaap Molenaar and John Stoop 5.10
Horizontal and Other Rescue Techniques: Practical Aspects 241 Wolfgang Baumeier and Michael Schwindt
5.11
Ice Rescue 249
Carla St-Germain and Andrea Zaferes 5.12
Rescues Under Difficult Circumstances. 254 5.12.1
Plane Crashes 254 Martin Nemiroff 5.12.2
Offshore Powerboat Rescues 256 Joost Van Nueten
5.12.3
The NASA Ocean Rescue Plan for the Space Shuttle 261 Ahamed Idris
5.13
Rigid Inflatable Boats 264
Hans Vandersmissen and Ton Haasnoot 5.14
Inshore Rescue Boat Injuries with Implications for New Designs 271 Peter Fenner
5.15
Development and Use of Personal Watercraft in Aquatic Rescue Operations 275
Jim Howe
5.16
Alternatives for Rescue Boats 279 5.16.1
Hovercraft 279 Michael Vlasto 5.16.2
Jet Boat 284 Peter Dawes 5.16.3
Paraglider 286 Ruy Marra 5.17
Spinal Injury: Prevention, Immobilisation and Extrication from the Aquatic Environment 288
5.17.1
Prevention of Spinal Injuries 288 Jenny Blitvich
5.17.2
Immobilisation and Extraction of Spinal Injuries 291 Peter Wernicki, Peter Fenner and David Szpilman 5.18
Injuries to Lifesavers 296
Peter Wernicki and Peter Fenner 5.19
Management of Physical and Psychological Responses During Administration of CPR to a Drowned Person 301 Frank Pia
5.20
Psychological Care After CPR and Rescue 304
Ton Haasnoot
Task Force Chairs
▬ Chris Brewster
▬ Rob Brons
Task Force Members
▬ Tom Griffiths
▬ Jim Howe
▬ Gabriel Kinney
▬ Andrew Short
▬ Peter Wernicki
▬ Klaus Wilkens
▬ Mike Woodroffe
▬ Rick Wright
Other Contributors
▬ Wolfgang Baumeier
▬ Jenny Blitvich
▬ Chris Brooks
▬ Günther Cornelissen
▬ Peter Dawes
▬ Michael Ducharme
▬ Peter Fenner
▬ Ivar Grøneng
▬ Ton Haasnoot
▬ Antony Handley
▬ Ahamed Idris
▬ Gabriel Kinney
▬ Germ Martini
▬ Ruy Marra
▬ Jaap Molenaar
▬ Martin Nemiroff
▬ Joost van Nueten
▬ Michael Oostman
▬ Frank Pia
▬ Rolf Popp
▬ Michael Schwindt
▬ Brian Sims
▬ Carla St-Germain
▬ John Stoop
▬ David Szpilman
▬ Hans Vandersmissen
▬ Mike Vlasto
▬ Sip Wiebenga
▬ Andrea Zaferes
▬ Edward Zwitser
5.1 Overview
Chris Brewster and Rob Brons
Rescue is the most glorious method of drowning prevention. It is also the most dangerous. Each year extraordinarily courageous acts of aquatic rescue take place throughout the world. Also each year, would-be rescuers become victims themselves and die or are seriously injured in their efforts to rescue others. Some of these people have no training or experience, others are trained rescuers. In any case, although those involved in drowning prevention include a wide variety of disciplines, from epidemiologists to public educators to aquatic area manag- ers to paramedics to doctors, many of whom invest substantially of their time in the effort, it is the rescuers who are most often called upon to place themselves in peril to assist others. The fact that they know of this peril in advance and that they must often thrust themselves into a threatening, intimidating environment, makes their work all the more impressive.
Aquatic lifesaving has been mechanised to a degree. Boats, motor vehicles, and helicopters, for example, are used to expedite rescue services and protect the rescuers themselves. A variety of tools are also employed, like swim fins, rescue buoys, and wet suits. The very existence of these tools demonstrate an important element of water rescue: It often requires rescuers to enter the water to complete the rescue. In fact, most aquatic rescues performed each year around the world involve an elemental struggle by one human being against the forces of nature to rescue another. It is the ultimate struggle of life attempting to triumph over death.
In addition to prevention, rescuers are also involved in treatment of drowning victims. This is an inevitable responsibility, since it is rare that there is a source of advanced medical care available immediately after a rescue, other than the rescuers themselves. According the International Life Saving Federation (www.
ilsf.org), all people who assume a responsibility to protect, rescue, and resusci-
tate others in an aquatic setting should be taught and maintain proficiency in
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in a course which is approved in their own
country and consistent with the most recent Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary
Resuscitation. Additional medical skills are also typically part of the training
of aquatic rescuers, so that they may be prepared to handle trauma (particularly
including spinal injury), hypothermia, and a variety of other medical problems
that can be expected in the aquatic environment. Thus, despite the fact that their
primary responsibility may be rescue, most aquatic rescuers are also very in-
volved in both drowning prevention and treatment.
Rescue is the subject of two sections of this handbook. This expanded treat- ment addresses the many types of circumstances that require rescue, the myriad techniques involved, the wide array of equipment used, and the different or- ganisational approaches. The World Congress on Drowning 2002 brought to- gether experts in water rescue from a very broad number of disciplines. These sections reflect their contributions. Utilising the information in these sections, effective lifesaving organisations can become even better at what they do, and those beginning to provide lifesaving services will have a roadmap at their dis- posal, drawn by some of the most respected experts in the field of aquatic res- cue worldwide. In the prior section, we focused on organisational issues that can help prevent accidents and improve outcomes when accidents occur. In this section, we will focus on specific tools and knowledge disciplines for effective drowning prevention.
Understanding the environment in which rescues are made is critical to the well-prepared lifesaver. Some of the most challenging aquatic environments are produced by the existence of waves and surf.
Chapter 5.3provides an overview of types of waves, how they form, and how the rescuer can best be prepared for them.
One of the ways lifesaving organisations can help inform the public about known hazards and help them avoid injury is through the use of signs. A number of different approaches have been taken in different regions of the world, each with inherent similarities, but also local adaptations.
Chapter 5.4discusses types of signs, design factors, and efforts to help bring about international standards.
Effective preventive lifesaving necessarily involves effective surveillance of an aquatic area. Only through continual vigilance utilising proper techniques can problems be expeditiously identified and properly addressed.
Chapter 5.5offers the reader a history of some leading theories, an overview of the current state of the art, and some thoughts about what the future may hold.
There have been many advancements in open sea search and rescue.
Chapter 5.6
provides an overview of what is new, what has not changed, and what is needed to further improve upon the readiness of the world to respond to open sea rescue.
How has the design of lifejackets evolved over the years? What are some of the latest features? What types of lifejackets are best for different applica- tions and environments? Answers to these questions and others can be found in
Chapter 5.7.1
.
Lifejackets are not the only way to maintain safety for those who find them- selves in or near the water. Survival suits have long been used as a way to main- tain both buoyancy and protection from immersion, particularly in cold water.
Design elements have changed, but challenges remain to developing an ideal combination of features like donning properties, ergonomics for on-board tasks, compatibility with evacuation systems, in-water performance, and durability.
Chapter 5.7.2
discusses these and related issues.
Chapter 5.8
deals with the issue of self-rescue, and
Chapter 5.8.1looks more
particularly at the scenario whereby a victim suddenly finds him or herself im-
mersed in cold water, and whether self-rescue would be possible in the absence
of others to assist? In addition,
Chapter 5.8.1provides vital information on what
you can expect to experience and how you might successfully extricate yourself from this peril. What if the water is not necessarily cold? Are there other factors to consider? Yes, according to
Chapter 5.8.2. This chapter includes basic infor- mation on how to deal with rip currents, tidal currents, waves, and a variety of other circumstances.
In the Netherlands alone, some 30 people die each year when their motor vehicles end up in the water. Indeed, these sorts of accidents occur throughout the world.
Chapter 5.9discusses the challenges faced in rescues of people from submerged vehicles and techniques that have proven effective.
When people are rescued from prolonged immersion in cold water, they sometimes suffer cardiac arrest due to the method of extrication employed by rescuers. Physiological factors associated with a vertical rescue can seriously stress the body, leading to this outcome.
Chapter 5.10explains this issue and how rescuers can avoid handling victims in a way that threatens their survival.
One of the most dangerous challenges to self-rescue and to rescue efforts by professionals is a fall through the ice. For the victim, getting out is an extreme challenge. Even those who are successful face hypothermia after escape from the water. For rescuers, safely assisting a victim can place those involved in the effort in tremendous danger.
Chapter 5.11provides advice both for victims and rescuers to help ensure the best possible outcome.
Chapter 5.12
looks at rescues under difficult conditions. As long as air- craft fly near or over water, there is a certainty that some will crash in water.
Chapter 5.12.1
provides an overview of these accidents.
Chapter 5.12.2on off- shore powerboat rescue addresses an unusual, but challenging form of rescue, including common injuries. Rescue tools and techniques are an integral part of this chapter. According to
Chapter 5.12.3on the NASA ocean rescue plan for the Space Shuttle: “After the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986, NASA devel- oped plans for rescue of astronauts in the event of a catastrophic disaster during launch”. Needless to say, one of these plans involves ocean rescue.
Aquatic rescue organisations employ a variety of tools. One of these is rescue boats. Traditionally, these had wooden hulls, but later a variety of other types of hulls were devised, including inflatables.
Chapter 5.13discusses a hybrid of rigid hulls and inflatables that has been very effectively used in a variety of chal- lenging environments.
The inflatable rescue boat (IRB), sometimes called the inshore rescue boat, has been successfully employed by lifesavers in the nearshore surf environment for many years, since this use was pioneered in New Zealand and Australia. In
Chapter 5.14
the author discusses some of the serious injuries that have been associated with these relatively light and highly manoeuvrable craft, suggesting approaches that might reduce the potential for injury.
Personal watercraft (PWCs), such as Jet Skis, were once thought of only as aquatic toys. They have since been adapted by lifesaving organisations through- out the world for rescue. In
Chapter 5.15this evolution and some current meth- ods of safely and effectively using PWC for rescue are discussed.
In addition to rigid inflatable boats, IRBs, and PWCs, a variety of alternatives
to traditional rescue boats have been developed or adapted; these are discussed
in
Chapter 5.16. More particularly,
Chapter 5.16.1discusses the experience of
members of the United Kingdom‘s Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI) in use of hovercraft, which are now used effectively for certain specialised ap- plications. In Australia, another unusual alternative has been employed. In
Chapter 5.16.2
the author describes development and deployment of jet boats by Surf Life Saving Queensland. Meanwhile, in Brazil, a unique experiment in aero- nautics, the paraglider, is described in
Chapter 5.16.3. Interestingly, the author describes use of this craft to patrol aquatic areas and effect rescues as needed.
Spinal injuries (
Chapter 5.17) are a serious problem in the aquatic environ- ment.
Chapter 5.17.1discusses the magnitude of the problem and that the inci- dence of injury can be reduced through awareness, skills and regulation. Despite best efforts to reduce the incidence of these injuries, they will likely be a problem for many years to come and safely extricating those with spinal injuries from the water will continue to pose a significant challenge. Methods to recognise those who may have a spinal injury and to rescue them in the safest possible manner are described in
Chapter 5.17.2.
According to
Chapter 5.18“Lifesaving requires a unique combination of physical and mental skills with an ultimate goal of saving lives. There is no other occupation incorporating such a mélange of physical challenges and fitness re- quirements. These same challenges and requirements create an increased risk of injury, illness, or worse”. The authors describe risk factors particular to lifesav- ing, common and uncommon injuries, and techniques for injury prevention.
The author of
Chapter 5.19points out that “... responding to a cardiac arrest is a highly stressful ... event”. He suggests that CPR training should include in- formation to prepare rescuers for the stress that will inevitably occur so that they can better prepare themselves to deliver effective CPR.
Like any emergency care providers, lifesavers are vulnerable to adverse psy- chological effects after providing care to seriously injured people, particularly in cases of death.
Chapter 5.20discusses the importance of caring for rescuers before, during, and after a stressful incident to help them cope with sometimes serious outcomes.
In summary, this section of the handbook provides a wealth of information on rescue from a wide variety of disciplines. The careful reader will gain tre- mendous insight into ways to develop and improve aquatic rescue services. The opportunity is yours.
5.2
Recommendations
Chris Brewster and Rob Brons
Prior to the World Congress on Drowning, the Rescue Task Force was assembled.
This group of experts was asked to focus attention on eight rescue-related topics and to make specific recommendations. These were reviewed and accepted by the Rescue Task Force and the Steering Group of the World Congress on Drowning.
During the Congress, these topics were discussed in further detail and the rec-
ommendations were published, in abbreviated form, in the appendices of the
Final Recommendations of the World Congress on Drowning. In this chapter, you will find brief synopses, compiled by the Rescue Task Force leader, of each of the topics addressed by the Rescue Task Force involving prevention and rescue techniques. Specific recommendations are also included. For a more thorough explanation of each topic, please see the chapters in this section authored by the named experts. During the World Congress on Drowning, additional topics with regard to swimming training and scientific investigation of rescue techniques resulted in further recommendations as a product of discussion among the ex- perts in attendance. Four of the topics covered by the Rescue Task Force and these two additional topics can be found in
Chapter 4.2. Here you will find the remaining topics (7–10) and recommendations.
5.2.1
Recommendation 7 –
Surveillance Techniques for Drowning Prevention
Task Force Expert: Tom Griffiths
One of the most critical functions of a lifeguard is water observation to detect victims in distress. It has been shown by Frank Pia that victims rarely call for help, thus the importance of surveillance to detect distress is paramount to pre- venting drowning. Unfortunately, this is one of the least studied areas of life- guard performance. Most training appears to be based on anecdotal informa- tion, passed on over the years within lifesaving organisations, and little research in this area is available to guide the training of lifeguards to minimise boredom and increase vigilance. As Rescue Task Force member Tom Griffiths points out, a need for quality research in this area clearly exists, because if better preventive actions could be identified and utilised by lifeguards on duty, accident preven- tion could be enhanced and ultimately many lives saved. In addition, lifeguard retention may be improved by identifying methods to reduce boredom and less- en the stress of missing a rescue (see
Chapter 5.5).
Rescue Recommendation 7:
Further research is needed in the area of surveillance, scanning and vigilance by
lifeguards from a physiological and psychological perspective to determine the
best methods of instruction and practice. This body of knowledge is desperately
needed in order to save lives. Whatever methodology used, scanning systems and
strategies should be studied objectively by working lifeguards on duty.
5.2.2
Recommendation 8 –
Advantages and Limitations of Personal Watercraft in Aquatic Rescue
Task Force Expert: Jim Howe
Personal watercraft, also known by the trade name Jet Ski, have been successfully utilised in aquatic rescue in a variety of environments. These include surf, off- shore, flood rescue, inland waterways, and other areas. Despite initial resistance by some aquatic rescue agencies, personal watercraft have proven themselves to be effective rescue tools in a wide variety of environments. In coming years, per- sonal watercraft can be expected to be an increasingly common tool for aquatic rescue. Unfortunately, there are no consistent standards for the training of aquat- ic rescuers in use of personal watercraft as a rescue tool (see
Chapter 5.15).
Rescue Recommendation 8A:
All aquatic rescue agencies should consider personal watercraft for rescue work, but further research should be undertaken to identify appropriate uses of the PWC in aquatic rescue.
Rescue Recommendation 8B:
The International Life Saving Federation should develop minimum training and certification standards for aquatic rescuers who will be tasked in the use of per- sonal watercraft for rescue.
5.2.3
Recommendation 9 –
Current Trends in Sea Rescue and Open Water Search Techniques
Task Force Experts: Michael Woodroffe and Gabe Kinney
The number of persons involved in activities that could place them at risk in the aquatic environment is steadily increasing. With that increase comes a concur- rently expanding need for preparedness to respond to aquatic emergencies.
It is widely accepted that vessels and aircraft have a duty to provide assistance to other vessels, aircraft or persons in distress, without regard to location, na- tionality or circumstances. To coordinate search and rescue, the, International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue Manual (IAMSAR) has been de- veloped. It has been accepted as the National Search and Rescue (SAR) Manual of the several countries.
Meanwhile, a wide variety of advances in open water search techniques based
on new technologies and equipment have been developed, such as computer
search applications, night vision equipment and VHF direction finding (VHF/
DF) systems. The internationally accepted Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) facilitates communications practices for search and rescue.
In future, distress communications will migrate towards satellite systems and cellular technology, and solutions must be found to meet the challenges they present. Also, new technologies are emerging in rescue craft, such as use of per- sonal watercraft (Jet Skis) for inshore cases, jet propulsion systems, improved navigation methods, and better hull and lifesaving appliance design. In addi- tion, more advanced rescue aircraft use state-of-the-market systems in airframe and avionics design, distress location and recovery technology.
The International Maritime Organisation‘s crusade to establish worldwide Maritime Search and Rescue Regions for the world‘s oceans was a significant achievement, but there must be full implementation. The challenge now is to put in place communications and SAR assets wherever they are needed throughout the world (see
Chapter 5.6).
Rescue Recommendation 9A:
The International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue Manual should be reviewed and incorporated by the sea rescue organisations of all of the nations of the world to ensure a coordinated and effective approach to maritime emer- gencies.
Rescue Recommendation 9B:
Rescue communications must provide dependable, robust, integrated, and effec- tive command and control for all involved segments of the response system, not simply point to point communications.
Rescue Recommendation 9C:
Sea rescue providers should ensure that their rescue craft keep pace with avail- able technology, evaluating and embracing effective new types of surface rescue craft and air rescue craft.
Rescue Recommendation 9D:
The Incident Command System, which has been developed to allow for effective oversight and organisation of emergency responses, should be adopted by all aquatic rescue organisations worldwide.
Rescue Recommendation 9E:
The priority now must be to ensure there is a search and rescue response in ar-
eas around the world where there is significant maritime traffic, whether it be
cruise liners, cargo ships, fishing boats or leisure craft. Those nations with well-
established SAR organisations must help those just embarking on providing such
facilities to cover their sea area of responsibility. Those with many years expertise in SAR will need to train and counsel those just starting out to fulfil the SAR re- quirements now demanded by all countries that are signatory to the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and Search and Rescue (SAR) conventions.
5.2.4
Recommendation 10 –
Spinal Injury Extrication from the Aquatic Environment
Task Force Expert: Peter Wernicki
One of the most challenging circumstances an aquatic rescuer faces is a victim in the water with an apparent or suspected spinal injury. In the view of Peter Wernicki, the rescue is the first and possibly the most important link in the chain of care of spinal injuries. The primary goal is to remove the person from the aquatic environment for further treatment in a manner that does no further harm than the initial injury. This challenge can be compounded by conditions such as currents and wave action. Several different approaches to spinal injury extrication from the aquatic environment have been developed, but none have been scientifically tested to demonstrate their effectiveness.
Some aquatic related spinal injuries are not immediately debilitating and the patient is able to walk up to the lifesaver, complaining of spinal pain, with a his- tory of a mechanism of injury that could produce spinal injury. In these cases, spinal immobilisation is also needed (see
Chapter 5.17.2).
Rescue Recommendation 10A:
Considering the devastating consequences of spinal injuries and the tremendous challenge of effective extrication of persons with suspected spinal injuries from the aquatic environment, it is recommended that scientific research be conducted on each of the existing methods recommended by the various lifesaving organisa- tions of the world to firmly establish the best possible methods of extrication.
Rescue Recommendation 10B:
Research by Peter Wernicki has identified three spinal immobilisation techniques
which appear to be effective. While different terms may be used for these tech-
niques, they include the vice grip, body hug, and the extended arm grip. It is rec-
ommended that until scientific testing can be conducted on these and any other
methods in existence, lifesavers be taught at least two of these three methods, as
each has advantages and disadvantages in various situations. The vice grip and
the extended arm grip appear to be the best two of the three.
Rescue Recommendation 10C:
Differing terms for spinal injury immobilisation techniques creates potential confusion in rescue. It is recommended that common terms for these techniques be adopted by all lifesaving organisations and that the terms should be vice grip, body hug, and the extended arm grip.
Rescue Recommendation 10D:
All lifesavers should be taught the standing backboard technique, to allow for immediate stabilisation of the spine of a person who walks up to the lifeguard complaining of spinal pain post trauma.
5.3
Patterns of Wave and Surf
Edward Zwitser
Everyone has heard of them, almost everyone has seen them and many have actually felt them: waves! They are such a self-evident part of the sea that the theories regarding their origins and effects are seldom thought of or discussed.
These theories are discussed below.
5.3.1
Five Different Types of Waves
The waves drawn by children do not actually exist. Perfectly rounded waves, standing still in time, with ships at their peaks, like those one sees in cartoons and the drawings of children, are little more than a product of an active imagina- tion. In reality, waves are in a state of constant movement. In fact, waves actually originate in movement. Based on their origins, five different types of waves can be distinguished.
▬ Ripple Waves
Ripple waves are so small that most people do not even consider them waves.
Ripple waves are the visible sign of an extremely weak wind along an almost smooth water surface. The air flows along the surface of the water, moving extremely small amounts of the water in its path. The surface begins to rip- ple, signalling the start of movement in the sea. As the wind increases, real waves develop.
▬ Wind Waves
As the wind increases in strength, ripple waves turn into wind waves. The
ripples increase in size as the wind increases in strength, which in turn gives
the wind a larger surface to grip. As the surface gripped by the wind increas-
es, the height of the waves increases. The height of the waves is determined
by a combination of wind speed, the length of the period in which the wind
endures and the fetch, which is the length of the water surface over which the wind exerts an influence. In other words, the free distance in the open sea, from the windward or luff side, over which the wind blows.
▬ Pressure Waves
In most cases, pressure waves are caused by seismic activity, underwater vol- canic eruptions, or by large pieces of land falling into the sea. Although these waves start out small, they can reach gigantic heights.
▬ Bottom Waves
Bottom waves are waves that change in terms of profile in response to chang- es in the bottom of the sea. As the waves reach an area with a water depth less than half of the length of the waves (the wave length is the distance between the deepest points of two waves), the waves start to ‘feel’ the bottom of the sea and change in response to what they feel. As the water depth decreases, the length of the wave also decreases. Because the water mass remains the same, the wave height increases, as does the steepness of the waves. If the speed of the wave crest also increases by more than the propagation speed of the wave, the crests break.
In shallow water, the waves break far more quickly and harshly than they do in open sea. At sea, the water from the breaking crests runs back down along the wave in a relatively smooth movement. In shallower water, however, the waves virtually trip over themselves. Sailing in such weather conditions is extremely dangerous.
▬ Cross Waves
As two rows of waves run in different directions, they cross paths at a certain point, resulting in wave heights that exceed the average height of the origi- nal waves. These waves, which form very quickly and unexpectedly, have the shape of a pyramid. Although these waves look extremely dangerous, they disappear almost as quickly as they appear.
Waves do not necessarily have to be cross waves to reach above-average heights, however. According to statistical measurements, one in 23 waves reaches twice average height, one in 1175 waves reaches three times average height and one in 300,000 waves reaches four times average height. In stormy weather, keeping a good lookout for these ‘green waves’ is advisable.
Most waves are caused by wind, although other factors, such as the ebb and flow of the tide, can also play an important role. If the tide runs in the same direction as the wind, the sea remains relatively calm, but if the tide runs against the wind, waves develop. These waves are short and steep.
5.3.2 Energy
To the naked eye, the water in a wave appears to run in tune with the propa-
gation movement of the wave, but this is not really the case. In fact, the water
itself stands still, while the wave moves. What that means is that waves are not
actually a movement of water, but a movement of energy, caused by the external
factors mentioned above. The energy moves vertically, beneath the water. This concept can be illustrated using a float. Waves do not take floats with them in the direction that they propagate. Instead, the float moves up and down, but remains in its original position.
Even after the wind dies down, the effect of the energy that it generates con- tinues for long periods. The wave movements originally started by the wind con- tinue even after the wind has died. This movement is called heaving. Even in wind-still weather, ships in the open sea can be confronted with heaving waves.
These waves are caused in the same way as other types of waves, by wind and other external factors, but they are kept alive by energy once the wind and other external factors disappear. The deeper the water, the greater the impact of the vertical energy movement on the surface of the water and, hence, the higher the heaving wave.
There are various types of waves and no one wave is exactly the same as an- other, which means that skippers must always be ready for unexpected water movements, particularly in stormy weather. The movement can be an extremely high wave, a breaking wave, a pyramid-shaped wave or other type of movement.
Unexpected water movements are an integral part of the undying mystery of the sea. They cannot be prevented and they demand a quick, professional reac- tion on the part of the skipper. To react appropriately, each skipper must have the necessary knowledge, the right equipment and, particularly important, good old-fashioned common sense. Safety at sea starts with respect for the sea.
5.4
Water Safety Signs and Beach Safety Flags
Brian Sims
Public information symbols and safety signs in the field of water safety, and beach safety flags have a primary and important role in preserving human life.
In many cases where accidents have occurred one of the first questions usually asked is “What safety information was provided to prevent such an accident?”
It is important therefore to establish the basis for the provision of water safety signs and beach safety flags, and to ensure an adequate educational program for users of water-based activities and those who may come into contact with an aquatic environment.
In recent years there has been a growing trend to supplement, and in some
cases replace signs which use text alone, with a range of different graphical sym-
bol designs. Also a wide selection of coloured flags has been used to give the
public an indication of beach safety factors. This has been driven by an increas-
ing awareness of the need to inform a widening group of users, who may not un-
derstand the language of the host country. The recognition of the benefits from
easily read and understood graphical symbols and coloured flags are strong,
particularly within sport, leisure, and the tourism industries, where a properly
designed sign and/or flag can replace a potentially complicated written sign.
Widening use of graphical symbols for preventing accidents has also led to an increasing awareness of the need to make signs and flags compatible with the environment. Graphical symbols are frequently used to quickly convey a mes- sage in publications, authoritative documentation, and information leaflets.
The current range of signs and flags in use in some locations, and used to convey certain safety messages may be in need of replacement with clear graphi- cal symbol signs and/or appropriate flag colours.
5.4.1
Water Safety Signs and Graphical Symbols – Design Factors
One of the key factors in the presentation of a water safety sign is the need to place an easily recognisable graphical symbol within a standardised geomet- ric shape with safety colours and contrast colours appropriate to the type of safety sign. This poses an issue within the international standard community as the International Standardisation Organisation (ISO) in ISO 3864 contains a number of National Standards within specific Regulations and the geometric shape of particular types of safety sign differ from that specified since 1984.
As an example, within the European Union a number of Directives are found.
One of these is concerned with the geometric shape, colour and design of safety signs and is referenced under Council Directive 92/58/EEC. The specified geo- metric shapes and colours of safety signs for use in the workplace are the same as those given in ISO 3864: 1984 and ISO 3864-1: 2002. There are five types of safety sign:
▬ Prohibition signs: The geometric shape is a circular band with a diagonal bar at 45° to the horizontal, top left to bottom right. The circular band and bar are in red. The contrasting colour is a white background. The graphical symbol is black. These signs indicate that a specific behaviour is forbidden.
▬ Warning signs: The geometric shape is a triangle and the safety colour a yel- low background. The contrasting colour of the triangular band is black. The graphical symbol is black. These signs indicate a specific source of potential harm.
▬ Mandatory signs: The geometric shape is a circle and the safety colour is blue. The contrasting colour is white. The graphical symbol is in white. These signs indicate that a specific course of action is to be taken.
▬ Safe condition signs: The geometric shape is a square and the safety colour is green. The graphical symbol is in white. These signs indicate a safety action, the location of safety equipment or a safety facility or an escape route.
▬ Fire safety signs: The geometric shape is a square and the safety colour is red.
The graphical symbol is in white. Fire safety signs in ISO 7010 also incorpo- rate a flame determinant. These signs indicate the location or identification of fire equipment or how it should be used.
Examples of safety signs with specific water safety meanings are:
▬ Prohibition signs: No swimming, No diving, No personal watercraft
▬ Warning signs: Strong currents, Thin ice, Deep water
▬ Mandatory signs: Wear a lifejacket
⊡ Fig. 5.1a–c. National water safety signs. b and c are enlargements of a.
Safe condition signs and fire safety signs may be present in a water activity facil- ity and covered in a general safety standards or regulations. Examples are:
▬ Safe condition signs: Emergency exit, First aid, Emergency telephone
▬ Fire safety signs: Fire extinguisher, Fire hose reel, Fire alarm call point In some countries the geometric shape and colour of particular types of safe- ty sign differ from those described above. Examples of this occur in Australia (AS 2899-2: 1986), also Surf Life Saving Association – State of Victoria (Aquatic signage manual – 2002); Canada – the Lifesaving Society (Safety and warning signs – 1999) (
⊡ Fig. 5.1); New Zealand – Water safety signage (Draft DZ 8690);
and for USA – the United States Lifesaving Association (Standardized Water safety symbols – 1986). It is therefore essential to recognise the current status and regulations that may apply in individual countries and the difficulties that may need to be addressed to achieve an international standards for water safety signs.
Another key factor in the presentation of a water safety sign is to design a graphical symbol, which is easily recognised and understood within an aquatic activity or environment. As an example, the creation of the first British stand- ard for water safety signs (BS 5499-11: 2002) took best practice into account and published references from sources around the world and in particular the ex- tensive amount of work carried out in Australia and New Zealand. The water safety symbols were therefore designed within a consistent style, and in relation to such factors as the size and flow of water, and the balance of the human figure with or without the use of recreational equipment. The water safety signs used the geometric shapes and colours for the particular type of sign specified in ISO 3864-1. Some graphical symbols were used in more than one type of safety sign (for example No diving and Beware-diving area, No sailing and Beware-sailing area). Because the shape and size of the area available for the graphical symbol differed for the different types of safety sign (for example, triangular area com- pared to a circular area) the final design of the graphical symbol was adjusted so that it was suitable for inclusion in a prohibition or warning sign.
The design of the graphical symbols in particular also needs to take into ac- count the design requirements for small-scale reproduction as used in publica- tions and on safety information leaflets. The use of a short supplementary text may also be needed to give and enhance a positive safety message.
The following subjects and activities have been found to form the majority of graphical symbol needs around the world, and are found within a range of types of safety sign indicating prohibition, warning, and mandatory actions includ- ing: swimming; snorkelling; scuba; diving; surfboarding; windsurfing; sailing;
water-skiing; rowing; inflatable; fishing; motorised craft; personal water craft;
lifejackets; and environmental consideration for deep water; shallow water; sud- den drop; strong currents; slipways; thin ice.
The likely locations for erecting water safety signs include swimming pools,
beaches, inland open waters, cliff walks, harbours, parks and open spaces.
The problem is one of application for the public and the respective parties concerned to understand, acknowledge, and accept the safety message. The issue of education will therefore play a crucial role in the development of a water safety strategy. This will also be a major factor when a risk assessment is undertaken for a particular aquatic based location.
It has been pointed out above that design differences for water safety signs occur among countries, for example European countries compared to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the USA, and therefore any attempt to promote a firm international proposal from the meetings held at the World Congress on Drowning were limited to a few generic or specific areas.
As a point of information the UK currently holds the secretariat of the Technical (TC145) at the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) for Graphical Symbols.
The route for International Standardisation is more likely to be achieved through ISO, although the advanced work carried out by the International Lifesaving Federation (ILS) is supportive of this process. It had been suggested that it might be useful to expedite this important area of water safety by the provision of an ILS ‘best practice standard’. This could be a counterproductive issue and had been heavily debated at the Congress. The outcome was seen as a need to liaise and advances a joint approach as quickly as possible. This is more likely to be achieved within the scope of the graphical symbols. The geometric shape and colour of particular types of safety sign is more likely to be regulated in some countries.
5.4.2
Public Information Symbols – Design Factors
Public information symbols can relate to specific water related activities as well as to general signing of access and other facilities. In the UK, the new British Standard on Water safety signs (BS 5499-11) was developed at the same time as the new British Standard on Public Information symbols (BS 8501).
Those graphical symbols for water related activities were designed to be easi- ly recognised and understood within an aquatic activity or environment. Where a graphical symbol was intended to be used in a public information symbol or a water safety sign, the final design of the graphical symbol was adjusted so that it could be used in different types of safety sign without alteration.
Examples of relevant public information symbols include: showers, boat hire, boat trips, wetlands nature reserve, canoeing, diving, fishing, jet skiing, rowing, sailing, sand yachting, snorkelling, scuba, surfing, swimming, water polo, water skiing, windsurfing, marina, pier-mooring, slipway.
Standardised public information symbols comprise black graphical symbols on a white square background.
Internationally, ISO 7001 covers public information symbols. Currently this standard is being revised by ISO through TC 145.
The inclusion of public information symbols, including those for water safe-
ty, will be required for a range of related documents and publications. These are
likely to be found in tourist and information centres close to an aquatic centre.
Information about relevant public information symbols should also be consid- ered for display at the points of entry to beaches, open water areas and swim- ming pools.
5.4.3
Beach Safety Flags – Design Factors
A preliminary research project by the ILS sought to identify specifically the range of beach safety flags in use across the world. This identified some varia- tion among a relatively small number, less than fifteen in total, of flags.
At recent meetings of ILS and at the World Congress on Drowning, the issue of a suitable and well-understood flag system was considered. It was concluded that a limited number of flags to identify safety factors, including water and weather conditions, should be promoted.
The flags should be identified under two main groups:
Firstly flags giving an indication of the wind, weather, and water conditions, and include
▬ Red flag: Danger
Rough water; powerful dumping waves; surge waves; heavy surf with rip currents; unstable sea-bed; sudden changes in depth near to shore, or unex- pected holes and rocks; abnormal weather which temporarily changes placid conditions to those which are life-threatening. The hoist of the red flag indi- cates all water users should leave the water.
▬ Yellow flag: Caution
The water may not be calm; it may vary from heavy swell to breaking surf thus producing varying water depths. Young, the elderly or weak swimmers may not cope and should be discouraged from entering the water.
▬ Green flag: Calm
Not necessarily safe conditions and caution should still be exercised espe- cially the young, the elderly, or weak swimmers.
The second group of flags give an indication of aquatic activity control and zoning with criteria to include:
▬ Red-Yellow (halved) flag: Lifeguarded area
To indicate that an area usually between two flags is patrolled or observed by lifeguards/s and is likely to be a relatively safe area for swimming only. It is recommended that all swimmers use these designated areas but are still advised to exercise caution.
▬ Black-white (quartered) flag: Surfing area
To indicate a zoned area between two flags designated for surfing with boards and other related equipment. Swimmers are advised not to enter these zones.
At this time these flags are seen as best practice and are likely to be taken for-
ward for consideration as an international standard. For this to be effective it
will be essential for the beach safety flags to be incorporated within the scope of the water safety signs system, and for further research to be conducted.
It is known that some work has been undertaken to include graphical sym- bols on coloured flags to emphasise a particular safety message. This system has only recently been promoted and has yet to be taken forward for further research and possible development. Consideration will be give to this concept by ILS.
This initial list of flags is noted only as a guide to those countries who may wish to promote the use of beach safety flags. The designs should be considered as best practice at this time, as further research and development is being car- ried out particularly in Australia, New Zealand, UK and USA and changes are to be expected in the future. The ILS has now a proposed list of standardised flags under review.
This current system, based on best practice, recognises the definitions used in a number of national publications and standards on water safety issues. Other flags may also be used in addition to identify specific local environmental or marine animal concerns. Also further flags may be recognised for specific needs in some countries.
As noted above for water safety signs, the inclusion of beach safety flags will be required for a range of related documents and publications, and as mentioned these are likely to be found in tourist and information centres close to an aquat- ic centre. Information about flags should also be considered for display at the points of entry to beaches and open water areas.
It is considered important to have an international standard for beach safety flags. Currently beach safety flags have not been included in international stand- ards, such as ISO standards. This issue will be raised later in this paper.
5.4.4
Role of the International Lifesaving Federation
The ILS seeks to play a leadership role in the development of international stand- ards for water safety signs and beach safety flags through its member federa- tions, which are the national aquatic lifesaving organisations of the world. The infrastructure of the ILS Rescue/Education Commission allows for liaison with ILS Federations and this may offer suggestions for further contact by member Federations to their National Standards Organisations. Some ILS Federation members have already commenced this dialogue and it is known that a number of standards or best practice currently exist, particularly from Australia, New Zealand, the USA and the UK. ILS will continue to play a part in research and development and particularly toward the essential requirement for any testing of signs and flags that may be required across all cultures and nationalities.
Some useful discussions were held on the development of beach safety flags
at the World Congress on Drowning with the prime conclusion that an interna-
tional standard would be ideal. An interesting design factor that emerged during
one workshop session was the introduction of a symbolic number added to each
coloured flag.
It was considered that this might provide the beach user a greater under- standing of a coded system and would particularly benefit those persons who may be colour-blind. A problem with this system is the potential misunderstand- ing of what the numbers mean (for example the number of the lifesaving stand or the degree of hazard). Another design feature discussed was the inclusion of a graphical symbol on the flag (such as a swimmer in the water, to identify the specific message of the flag signal).
5.4.5
International Standardisation Organisation
As previously mentioned the ISO committee TC 145 is concerned with graphi- cal symbols. It is also concerned with the design principles for safety signs (ISO 3864-1) and with the standardisation of safety signs (ISO 7010) and public in- formation symbols (ISO 7001). The subcommittee SC 1 is responsible for public information symbols and subcommittee SC 2 for safety signs. The committees have formal procedures for the approval of new proposals for public information symbols for standardisation in ISO 7001 and for approval of new proposals for safety signs for standardisation in ISO 7010. Proposals are also submitted by oth- er ISO technical committees or by member National Standards Organisations. In both procedures it is expected that the public information symbol or the safety sign is tested for the degree of understanding by the relevant target audience by testing according to ISO 9186: 2001.
At this time the relevant ISO TC 145 committees have not considered the is- sue of beach safety flags being within the scope of ISO TC 145. There are formal procedures for consideration and approval of any new work item, as this would also be required for beach safety flags.
5.4.6
Future Developments
During the World Congress on Drowning the opportunity was afforded to any country that wished to display their national standards for water safety signs and/or beach safety flags. A number of countries took up this option and follow- ing their presentation some useful dialogue was recorded and placed as a spe- cific recommendation for consideration by organisations such as ISO and ILS.
Formal presentations were then received from the USA for the States of Hawaii and from Florida, and from the UK. A paper from Surf Lifesaving in Australia was also available together with support material from Italy. The re- search material collated by ILS for water safety signs and beach safety flags was also available for perusal.
As a result of the presentation and the availability of a wide range of sup-
port material it was possible to hold a fruitful discussion among the seventeen
different nations taking part. This included representatives from governments,
lifesaving organisations and consumer groups. In particular, the issue of varia-
tions on water safety signs was discussed and this looked at the two aspects of a safety sign, the geometric shape of different types of safety sign and the graphi- cal symbol.
In the first aspect there seemed to be a fairly broad acceptance of the design principles for the prohibition sign, namely red circular band and diagonal nega- tion bar on a white circular background. One exception being the use of an oc- tagonal band with a diagonal negation bar in Canada. The issue of the warning signs is more of a problem. There is a common ground for the safety colour of yellow with a black edge, but the geometric shape is in some countries a triangle (as specified in ISO 3864-1:2002) and in others a diamond.
This is clearly a case where the ISO standard for testing safety signs could be applied. The mandatory sign also had a few minor deviations. However there seemed to be a fairly common approach to the design of most of the graphical symbols for aquatic activities and environments. Even so, some further discus- sion would be required and once again this could be established through the ISO system.
The beach safety flags also proved to be an interesting subject for discussion with the main aspects being those of a common understanding. In this regard some useful comments were received, particularly from the USA. Suggestions included:
▬ A plain colour coded system without the visual aid of graphical symbols on the flag depended on an information board with supplementary text to ex- plain the meaning of the warning message
▬ Beach users in particular expect to be able to see a flag from far away and to understand the message they are deemed to convey without the need to move toward the immediate proximity of the flag. Therefore a symbolic inclusion onto a coloured flag may be a practical solution, although the strength of the wind and its direction may sometimes cause interpretation problems for us- ers of the beach
Therefore some action points or recommendations from the Congress would be taken forward to the ILS in the first instance. This was also to coincide with pro- posed liaison with the ISO.
It was also recognised that the Congress gave the first opportunity for wide ranging discussion from a broad representation of nations and led to the forma- tions of a number of action points to be taken forward to national organisations and related international bodies. The action points can be summarised as fol- lows:
▬ That a committee be established, most likely within the ILS Rescue and Education Commissions to examine a common, acceptable and responsive framework to the issue of water safety signs with graphical symbols, public information symbols, and beach safety flags
▬ That ILS continue their work in this field to advise and implement best prac- tice globally with regard to water safety signs, graphical symbols and flags, and to ensure their member federations are kept informed
▬ That a core group of graphical symbols be identified for use as water safety
symbols by ILS
▬ That a small group of beach safety flags with a clearly defined safety message be chosen which may be suggested for use by ILS member federations. The possibility of also using a graphical symbol as a component of the flag should also be researched
▬ That the problem of colour blindness and the challenges posed by a user groups not wearing their glasses or contact lenses be addressed as part of any research process
▬ That supplementary text is identified as a reinforcement mechanism to water safety signs, graphical symbols and flags
▬ And finally that ILS liaises with ISO on these matters
It is vital that Congress delegates who wish to participate in this work contact their own Standards organisation and/or their ILS member federation express- ing their wish to do so and their support for the work items noted above. If at some time ISO decide there shall be a separate working group for water safety signs, it will require five positive votes from member countries of ISO 145 for this work to proceed and this will require formal ratification at meetings of this committee. The ILS Rescue/Education Commission is currently working toward support for a standard for water safety signs and also beach safety flags.
National Lifesaving and also Standards organisations were invited to sup- port the work undertaken in this Congress and to give all reasonable assist- ance to those involved in the preventative measures to alleviate the condition of drowning.
Further Reading International
1. ISO 3864 (1984) Safety colours and safety signs
2. ISO 3864-1 (2002) Graphical symbols – safety colours and safety signs – Part 1: design principles for safety signs in workplaces and public areas
3. ISO 7010 – Graphical symbols – safety signs in workplaces and public areas 4. ISO 7001 – Public information symbols
5. ISO 9186 (2001) Graphical symbols – test methods for judgement of comprehensibility and for comprehension
6. World Tourism Organisation (2001) Tourism signs and symbols. ISBN-92.844.0378.2
European
7. European Council Directive 92/58/EEC on the minimum requirements for the provision of safe- ty and/or health signs at work
8. ILS website www.ilsf.org
United Kingdom
9. BS 5499 – 11 (2002) Graphical symbols and signs. Safety signs including fire safety signs, Part 11:
Water safety signs
10. BS 8501 Graphical symbols and signs – Public information symbols 11. Safety on Beaches – Royal Life Saving Society UK
United States of America
12. ANSI Z535 (1998) Safety signs and colour standards
13. USLA (1986) Standardized water safety symbols (Hawaii Region)
Australia
14. AS 2899–2 (1986) Public Information symbol signs. Water safety signs
15. Surf Lifesaving Victoria Inc (Australia) (2002) Aquatic and Recreational Signage Manual
New Zealand
16. Draft DZ 8690 – Water Safety Signage
Canada
17. The Lifesaving Society (1999) Safety and warning signs
