POLLUTANTS SCHEME
2.3. THE EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION
2.3.3 HUMAN HEALTH IMPACTS
SHARE OF DEA THS FROM OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION, 2017. LEGEND:
NO DATA 0% to 2%2% to 4%4% to 6%6% to 8%8% to 10%10% to >12%41 When we compare the share of deaths attributed to outdoor air pollution either over time
or between countries, we are not only comparing the extent of outdoor air pollution, but its severity in the context of other risk factors for death. Air pollution’s share does not only depend on how many dies prematurely from it, but what else people are dying from and how this is changing . [10]
Fig. 6. Chart: number of deaths by risk factor, World, 2017, source: IHME, Global Burden of Disease (GBD)
10.44 million
Smoking 7.1 million
High blood sugar 6.53 million
4.9 million
Obesity 4.72 million
3.41 million
Diet high in sodium 3.2 million
Diet low in whole grains 3.07 million
Alcohol use 2.84 million
Diet low in fruits 2.42 million
Diet low in nuts and seeds 2.06 million
1.64 million Diet low in vegetables 1.46 million
1.44 million 1.26 million
Unsafe water source 1.23 million
Secondhand smoke 1.22 million
Low birth weight 1.1 million
1.08 million
Unsafe sex 1.03 million
Diet low in fiber 873,408
774,241 No access to handwashing facility 707,248
Drug use 585,348
Diet low in legumes 534,767 Low bone mineral density 327,314
Vitamin-A deficiency 232,777 220,678 Diet low in calcium 184,760 160,983 Air Pollution (out door & indoor)
Outdoor air pollution
Indoor air pollution
Diet low in seafood omega 3 fatty acids Low physical activity
Child wasting
Poor sanitation
Child stunting
Non-exclusive breatfeeding
0 2 million 4 million 6 million 8 million 10 million
High blood pressure
NUMBER OF DEATHS BY RISK FACTOR, WORLD 2017.
42
Polltant Health effects Environmental effects Climate effects
Cardiovascular and lung disea-ses, heart attacks and arrhyth-mias. Can affect the central nervous system, the reproductive system and cause cancer. The outcome can be premature death.
Can affect animals in the same way as humans. Affects plant growth and ecosystem proces-ses.
Can cause damages and soiling of buildings, including monuments and objects of cultural heritage.
Reduced visibility.
Climate effect varies depending on particle size
and composition: some are reflective and lead to net cooling, while others absorb solar radia-tion leading to warming. Can lead to changed rainfall patterns.
Deposition can lead to changes in surface albedo.
PM10 PM2.5
Irritates eyes, nose, throat and lungs. Can destroy throat and lung tissues, leading to decrease in lung function; respiratory symptoms, such
as coughing and shortness of breath; aggravated asthma and other lung diseases. Can lead to premature mortality.
Damages vegetation by injuring leaves, reducing photosynthesis, impairing plant reproduction and growth, and decreasing crop yields. Ozone damage to plants can alter ecosystem structure, reduce biodiversity and decrease plant uptake of CO2.
Ozone is a greenhouse gas contributing to warming of the atmosphere.
O3
NO2 can affect the liver, lung, spleen and blood. Can aggravate lung diseases leading to respiratory symptoms and increased susceptibility to respi-ratory infection.
Contributes to the acidification and eutrophication of soil and water, leading to changes in species diversity. Enhances sensitivity to secondary stress (such as drought) on vegetation. Acts as a precursor of ozone and, particulate matter, with associated environmental effects. Can form nitric acid and damage buildings by surface recession.
Contributes to the formation of ozone and particulate matter, with associated climate effects.
NOx
Aggravates asthma and can reduce lung function and inflame the respiratory tract. Can cause headache, general discomfort and anxiety.
Contributes to the acidification of soil and surface water. Contribu-tes indirectly to the transforma-tion of mercury to the bioaccu-mulative methyl- mercury, which is toxic.
Causes injury to vegetation and local species losses in aquatic and terrestrial systems. Contribu-tes to the formation
of inorganic particulate matter with associated environmental effects. Damages building mate-rials.
Contributes to the formation of sulphate particles, cooling the atmosphere.
SOx
Can lead to heart disease and damage to the nervous system (e.g. personality and memory changes, mental confusion and loss of vision). Can cause heada-che, dizziness and fatigue.
May affect animals in the same way as humans, although concentrations capable of causing these effects are unlikely to occur in the natural environ-ment, except in extreme events such as forest fires.
Contributes to the formation of greenhouse gases such as CO2 and ozone.
Inorganic arsenic is a human carcinogen. May cause decrea-sed production of red and white blood cells, damage to blood vessels, abnormal heart rhythms, and liver and kidney damage. May damage the peripheral nervous system.
Highly toxic to aquatic life, birds and land animals. Where soil has high arsenic content, plant growth and crop yields may be reduced.
Organic arsenic compounds are very persistent in the environ-ment and subject to bioaccumu-lation.
No specific effects.
Cadmium, especially cadmium oxide is likely to be a carcinogen.
It may also cause reproductive damage and is toxic to the respi-ratory system. Exposure can cause permanent kidney damage, anaemia, fatigue and loss of the sense
of smell. It can also cause lung damage, shortness of breath, chest pain and accumulation of fluid in the lungs.
Toxic to aquatic life, as it is absor-bed by organisms directly in water. It interacts with cytopla-smatic components such as enzymes, causing toxic effects in cells.
Cadmium is highly persistent in the environment and bioaccumu-lates.
No specific effects.
Can affect almost every organ and system, especially the nervous system. Can cause premature birth, impaired mental develop-ment and reduced growth. It can also have cardiovascular and renal effects in adults and effects related to anaemia.
Bioaccumulates and adversely impacts both terrestrial and aquatic systems. Effects on animal life include reproductive problems and changes in appea-rance or behaviour.
No specific effects.
Several nickel compounds are classified as human carcino-gens. Non-cancer effects include allergic skin reactions, effects on the respiratory
Nickel and its compounds can have highly acute and chronic toxicity to aquatic life.
Can affect animals in the same way as humans.
No specific effects.
Polltant Health effects Environmental effects Climate effects
CO
As
Cd
Ld
Ni
Table 1. EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON HUMAN HEATH, THE ENVIROMENT AND CLIMATE
43
Can lead to heart disease and damage to the nervous system (e.g. personality and memory changes, mental confusion and loss of vision). Can cause heada-che, dizziness and fatigue.
May affect animals in the same way as humans, although concentrations capable of causing these effects are unlikely to occur in the natural environ-ment, except in extreme events such as forest fires.
Contributes to the formation of greenhouse gases such as CO2 and ozone.
Inorganic arsenic is a human carcinogen. May cause decrea-sed production of red and white blood cells, damage to blood vessels, abnormal heart rhythms, and liver and kidney damage. May damage the peripheral nervous system.
Highly toxic to aquatic life, birds and land animals. Where soil has high arsenic content, plant growth and crop yields may be reduced.
Organic arsenic compounds are very persistent in the environ-ment and subject to bioaccumu-lation.
No specific effects.
Cadmium, especially cadmium oxide is likely to be a carcinogen.
It may also cause reproductive damage and is toxic to the respi-ratory system. Exposure can cause permanent kidney damage, anaemia, fatigue and loss of the sense
of smell. It can also cause lung damage, shortness of breath, chest pain and accumulation of fluid in the lungs.
Toxic to aquatic life, as it is absor-bed by organisms directly in water. It interacts with cytopla-smatic components such as enzymes, causing toxic effects in cells.
Cadmium is highly persistent in the environment and bioaccumu-lates.
No specific effects.
Can affect almost every organ and system, especially the nervous system. Can cause premature birth, impaired mental develop-ment and reduced growth. It can also have cardiovascular and renal effects in adults and effects related to anaemia.
Bioaccumulates and adversely impacts both terrestrial and aquatic systems. Effects on animal life include reproductive problems and changes in appea-rance or behaviour.
No specific effects.
Several nickel compounds are classified as human carcino-gens. Non-cancer effects include allergic skin reactions, effects on the respiratory
tract, the immune and defence system and on endocrine regula-tion.
Nickel and its compounds can have highly acute and chronic toxicity to aquatic life.
Can affect animals in the same way as humans.
No specific effects.
Polltant Health effects Environmental effects Climate effects
CO
As
Cd
Ld
Ni
Polltant Health effects Environmental effects Climate effects
Cardiovascular and lung disea-ses, heart attacks and arrhyth-mias. Can affect the central nervous system, the reproductive system and cause cancer. The outcome can be premature death.
Can affect animals in the same way as humans. Affects plant growth and ecosystem proces-ses.
Can cause damages and soiling of buildings, including monuments and objects of cultural heritage.
Reduced visibility.
Climate effect varies depending on particle size
and composition: some are reflective and lead to net cooling, while others absorb solar radia-tion leading to warming. Can lead to changed rainfall patterns.
Deposition can lead to changes in surface albedo.
PM10 PM2.5
Irritates eyes, nose, throat and lungs. Can destroy throat and lung tissues, leading to decrease in lung function; respiratory symptoms, such
as coughing and shortness of breath; aggravated asthma and other lung diseases. Can lead to premature mortality.
Damages vegetation by injuring leaves, reducing photosynthesis, impairing plant reproduction and growth, and decreasing crop yields. Ozone damage to plants can alter ecosystem structure, reduce biodiversity and decrease plant uptake of CO2.
Ozone is a greenhouse gas contributing to warming of the atmosphere.
O3
NO2 can affect the liver, lung, spleen and blood. Can aggravate lung diseases leading to respiratory symptoms and increased susceptibility to respi-ratory infection.
Contributes to the acidification and eutrophication of soil and water, leading to changes in species diversity. Enhances sensitivity to secondary stress (such as drought) on vegetation. Acts as a precursor of ozone and, particulate matter, with associated environmental effects. Can form nitric acid and damage buildings by surface recession.
Contributes to the formation of ozone and particulate matter, with associated climate effects.
NOx
Aggravates asthma and can reduce lung function and inflame the respiratory tract. Can cause headache, general discomfort and anxiety.
Contributes to the acidification of soil and surface water. Contribu-tes indirectly to the transforma-tion of mercury to the bioaccu-mulative methyl- mercury, which is toxic.
Causes injury to vegetation and local species losses in aquatic and terrestrial systems. Contribu-tes to the formation
of inorganic particulate matter with associated environmental effects. Damages building mate-rials.
Contributes to the formation of sulphate particles, cooling the atmosphere.
SOx
A human carcinogen, which can cause leukaemia and birth defects. Can affect the central nervous system and normal blood production, and can harm the immune system.
Has an acute toxic effect on aqua-tic life. It bioaccumulates, especially in invertebrates. Leads to reproductive problems and changes in appearance or behaviour. It can damage leaves of agricultural crops and cause death in plants.
Benzene is a greenhouse gas contributing to the warming of the atmosphere. It also contri-butes to the formation of ozone and secondary organic aerosols, which can act as climate forcers.
Polltant Health effects Environmental effects Climate effects
Carcinogenic. Other effects may be irritation of the eyes, nose, throat and bronchial tubes.
Is toxic to aquatic life and birds.
Bioaccumulates, especially in invertebrates.
No specific effects.
C6H6
BaP
Fig. 7, table 1, Effects of air pollutants on human health, the environment, and the climate, sources Air Quality in Eu-rope-2018 Report. [13]
Can lead to heart disease and damage to the nervous system (e.g. personality and memory changes, mental confusion and loss of vision). Can cause heada-che, dizziness and fatigue.
May affect animals in the same way as humans, although concentrations capable of causing these effects are unlikely to occur in the natural environ-ment, except in extreme events such as forest fires.
Contributes to the formation of greenhouse gases such as CO2 and ozone.
Inorganic arsenic is a human carcinogen. May cause decrea-sed production of red and white blood cells, damage to blood vessels, abnormal heart rhythms, and liver and kidney damage. May damage the peripheral nervous system.
Highly toxic to aquatic life, birds and land animals. Where soil has high arsenic content, plant growth and crop yields may be reduced.
Organic arsenic compounds are very persistent in the environ-ment and subject to bioaccumu-lation.
No specific effects.
Cadmium, especially cadmium oxide is likely to be a carcinogen.
It may also cause reproductive damage and is toxic to the respi-ratory system. Exposure can cause permanent kidney damage, anaemia, fatigue and loss of the sense
of smell. It can also cause lung damage, shortness of breath, chest pain and accumulation of fluid in the lungs.
Toxic to aquatic life, as it is absor-bed by organisms directly in water. It interacts with cytopla-smatic components such as enzymes, causing toxic effects in cells.
Cadmium is highly persistent in the environment and bioaccumu-lates.
No specific effects.
Can affect almost every organ and system, especially the nervous system. Can cause premature birth, impaired mental develop-ment and reduced growth. It can also have cardiovascular and renal effects in adults and effects related to anaemia.
Bioaccumulates and adversely impacts both terrestrial and aquatic systems. Effects on animal life include reproductive problems and changes in appea-rance or behaviour.
No specific effects.
Several nickel compounds are classified as human carcino-gens. Non-cancer effects include allergic skin reactions, effects on the respiratory
tract, the immune and defence system and on endocrine regula-tion.
Nickel and its compounds can have highly acute and chronic toxicity to aquatic life.
Can affect animals in the same way as humans.
No specific effects.
Polltant Health effects Environmental effects Climate effects
CO
As
Cd
Ld
Ni
The UNECE, [United Nations Economic Commisions for Europe] member states have been working successfully to reduce air pollution in the region, identify EIGHT protocol. [11]
1984- Geneva Protocol (EMEP Protocol) Protocol on Long- term financing of the coop-erative programme for monitoring and evaluation of the long-range transmission of air pollutants Europe (EMEP)
EMEP has three main components: collection of emission data for sulphur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other air pollutants;
measurement of air and precipitation quality; and modelling of atmospheric dispersion.
1985- Helsinki Protocol- Reduction of Sulphur [SO2] Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30 per cent
1988- Sofia Protocol- concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides [NO2] or their Transboundary Fluxes
1991- Geneva Protocol concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds [VOC]or their Transboundary Fluxes. The VOC’s is major air pollutant responsible for the formation of ground-level ozone.
1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions. The Executive Body adopted the Protocol on Further Reductions of Sulphur Emissions in Oslo on 14 June 1994.
1998 Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals. It targets three particularly harmful me tals: cad-mium, lead and mercury. The Protocol aims to cut emissions from industrial sources (iron and steel industry, non-ferrous metal industry), combustion processes (power generation, road transport) and waste incineration. In addition, the Protocol requires Parties to phase out leaded petrol.
2012- to amend the Protocol to include more stringent controls of heavy metals emis