4.4 Results and discussion
4.4.1 NPs preparation and characterization
83 reduction in growth medium resulting from cell viability. Data are calculated as the percentage difference between treated and control samples with the following formula:
100%
2 1 1 2
2 1 1
2
P O P O
A O A reduction O
where O1 is the molar extinction coefficient (E) of oxidized AB at 570 nm; O2 is the E of oxidized AB at 600 nm; A1 is the absorbance of test wells at 570 nm; A2 is the absorbance of test wells at 600 nm; P1 is the absorbance of positive growth control well at 570 nm; P2
is the absorbance of positive growth control well at 600 nm.
4.3.10 Statistical analyses
In all cases, quantitative data are reported as mean value ± standard deviation (SD). The statistical significance of the results has been assessed by one-way analysis of variance ANOVA. An p value < 0.05 was considered to identify statistically different groups.
84 nanosystems have been engineered to combine device stability and targeting ability to CD44-overexpressing cancer cells.
Figure 4.2: schematic representation of the NPs characterized by HA shell, biodegradable PLGA-core and poloxamers that act as bridge between PLGA and HA
HA-decorated NPs have been formulated by dissolving PLGA and poloxamers in acetone and by emulsifying the obtained solution in an aqueous phase containing HA and, in case, poloxamers. The overall polymer concentration (PLGA and poloxamers) in the oil phase has been fixed at 2% w/v, while different amounts of HA and poloxamers in the external aqueous phase have been added. HA is known to be a strong polyanion at physiological pH and, therefore, the robustness of HA self-assembly on NP surface can be monitored by ζ potential analyses.
Results of size and ζ potential measurements are summarized in table 4.2 and shown that NPs size is progressively increasing with increasing HA concentration in the external aqueous phase, while ζ potential values significantly decrease from ~ -27mV of PP to ~ -57 mV for PPHA60.
HA shell
Biodegradable core
Poloxamers PEO-PPO-PEO
85 Forms PDIt=0 d(nm) t=0 d(nm) t=10 d potential
(mV) t=0
potential (mV) t=10 d
P 0.156 ± 0.01 154 ± 2.0 190 ± 10 -15.0 ± 0.8 -26.1 ± 1.7 PP 0.082 ± 0.01 106 ± 1.1 110 ± 10 -25.5 ± 1.2 -29.1 ± 1.8 PPHA30 0.884 ± 0.01 184 ± 4.3 161 ± 20 -49.7 ± 1.4 -49.3 ± 0.9 PPHA60 1.230 ± 0.01 306 ± 14 258 ± 14 -56.2 ± 1.0 -57.0 ± 2.1
Table 4.2: NP size and zeta potential at time zero and after 10 days in bidistilled water at 4°C. The mean values and standard deviations were calculated from at last three independent experiments
These results indicate the formation of an external HA shell, driven by a lipophilicity gradient between the oil and water phases of the emulsion used to produce the NPs. A ζ potential value equal to -50 mV is more negative than the one observed in the case of NPs coated by HA, prepared through LbL procedure, thus suggesting a more uniform and efficacious cover of the polysaccharide on NP surface with the novel production method presented in this work [Dreaden et al., 2014]. A negative zeta potential, which is due to the ionization of the carboxyl groups of HA, can prevent NP aggregation and binding to plasma proteins, therefore promoting their stability and prolonged circulation in vivo.
Furthermore, the ζ potential of NPs was found to be increasing with decreasing pH and, in particular, a quasi-neutral surface charge was found in the case of PPHA NPs, at a pH close to HA pKa (pH ~ 2), due to the protonation of the carboxyl groups on HA under decreasing pH (figure 4.3) [Huang et al., 2014]. Differently, HA-free NPs neutralize their superficial charge at the pKa of PLGA (pH ~ 4) [Yoo and Mitragotri, 2010].
86
-64 -56 -48 -40 -32 -24 -16 -8 0
7,4 5
4 3
2
PPHA60 PPHA30 PP P
Potential (mV)
pH
Figure 4.3: zeta potential values of different NP formulations as a function of pH. The mean values and standard deviations were calculated from at last three independent experiments
The presence of 0.2 % w/v of poloxamers in the external aqueous phase allows to obtain NPs with a lower mean diameter, without affecting the zeta potential value. This can be reasonably ascribed to the ‘bridging’ action of poloxamers between the inner hydrophobic PLGA and the outer hydrophilic HA domains. Indeed, it can be easily hypothesized that the surfactant properties of poloxamers help creating a less steep gradient of lipophilicity, which encourages the interaction and arrangement of HA chains on the surface of PLGA NPs.
In the clinical administration of NPs, the phenomenon of particle aggregation represents, of course, a crucial issue, affecting the drug release profile and possibly increasing the risk of vessel occlusion. For these reasons, the electrostatic and/or steric stabilization of NPs is an important aspect to be considered. In table 4.2, the results of NP dimensional stability experiments are reported. These findings point that a tumor-targeting HA corona enhances NP dimensional stability over time thanks to the higher electrostatic repulsion of PPHA NPs which, in turn, depends on the lower potential values, i.e. a higher density of negative charges at NP surface. Moreover, the presence of flexible HA chains on NP surface may help to improve NP steric stability and hydration.
87 Selected TEM micrographs of P, PP and PPHA NPs are reported in figures 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6, respectively.
Figure 4.4: selected TEM micrographs of P NPs
Figure 4.5: selected TEM micrographs of PP NPs
88
Figure 4.6: selected TEM (left) and AFM (right) micrographs PPHA NPs
The images revealed discrete, spherical particles for all NP formulations. However, it must be underlined that PPHA NPs have a completely different appearance compared to P and PP NPs. Indeed, in the case of HA-containing NPs, there is, clearly, a sort of surface discontinuity, which cannot be noticed in both P and PP which, on the contrary, have a very smooth surface. These findings further corroborate the hypotheses of superficial HA arrangement/deposition. The shape and outer HA corona was also visible in AFM images (figure 4.6, right).
The PP2HA30 formulation, hereafter named PPHA, has been selected for all the experiments reported in the following since it is optimized in terms of small size and dimensional stability.