171 'In realtà, i l fatto stesso che i l problema dell’ adattamento del nostro ordinamento (e no solo del nostro) agli atti internazionali sui diritti dell'uomo abbia finito per ritagliarsi uno spazio autonomo

dell'ambito di quello più generale dei rapporti tra diritto intemazionale e diritto interno sembra

indicare che la sua soluzione debba collocarsi su un piano parzialmente diverso da quello su cui

operano le tesi ora citate [supra]" (Mori, 1983:309)

172

1983:311).

constitutional nature. However, the Convention is remarkable because the constitutional approach

in

Carboni (1981:135).

173 This constitutional value of the Convention, however, has been wrongly used to support the idea that the Convention holds in Italy a hierarchical position, as an international treaty, over domestic statutes. It has been said, in this sense, that the relationship between the Convention and domestic statutes "andrebbe svolto tra norme oggettivamente diverse: da un parte, una specifica norma di legge che disciplina un aspetto particolare dell'esercizio di un diritto altrove sancito, dall’altra una disposizione convenzionale, che, per quanto dettagliata possa essere, sancisce e non vuol far altro che sancire il diritto in questione" (Mori, 1983:311-2). See also GrisottiR. (1981) "Convenzione Europea dei diritti dell’uomo e Costituzione ltaliana:cenni comparativi" in

La

Convenzione Europea dei diritti delIVomo.. dt pages 131-52 at 132.

c o m p leted by a s e c o n d function, b y virtue of which these treaties would also act as a p a ra m e te r of the constitutionality of d o m estic statutory law. In spite of their ability to solve co n crete cases w h e n directly applied by d o m estic courts, this seco n d function would allow them to play a different role which will b e m o re likely to b e c o m e the most im portant o n e 174

T h e crucial legal problem is to w h a t extent each constitutional system allows to this

constitutionalization of the C onvention or an y other instrument in its national legal

Again, the w a y in which this pro b lem has been posed in Italy and in Spain has b e e n conditioned b y th e constitutional provisions of each state. As seen below, the Spanish Constitution expressly situates th e Convention - and other international treaties on H um an Rights - a s a m ean of interpretation of the dom estic Constitution itself. On th e contrary, in Italy, th e Constitution d o es not expressly situates the Convention as a m ean o f interpretation o f th e fundam ental Constitutional rights or as a valid param eter of th e constitutionality of statutory law; several Articles o f the Constitution, however, have b een d e b a te d in ord er to give to the Convention a constitutional status.

2 . T h e C o n s titu tio n a l v a lu e o f t h e C o n v e n tio n in S p a in .

T h e Spanish c ase illustrates the d o u b le function th at H u m an Rights treaties m ay play into th e d o m estic legal order: in Spain, the a b o ve studied Article 9 6(1) of th e Constitution is not th e only constitutional provision concerning th e dom estic status of H u m an Rights treaties. Another Article of th e Constitution, Article (10)2, directly situates

174 'Se si tiene conto della loro immediata percettività e della loro formulazione, in nulla diverse dalle norme più propriamente statali, appare chiaro, infatti, che una volta immese nel sistema giuridico interno esse costituiscono pur sempre norme complete e fomite di funzione loro propria: anche quando no si rivelino direttamente applicabili, esse continueranno a rappresentare canoni di conformità della legge statale1 (Mori, 1983:316).

175 This point is stressed by Arbìa S. (1991) 'La giurisprudenza italiana e la Convenzione Europea dei Diritti dell'Uomo' in Rivista Intemazionale dei Dótti dell’Uomo 4 pages 120*132 at 129, who pouts forward that there exists in Italy a 'convincimento diffuso dell'obligatorietà delle norme

the Convention as a valid criterion of the constitutionality of laws: acco rd in g to this Article, Spanish Constitutional provisions on fundam ental rights should b e construed following international treaties on the matter ratified b y Spain17*. T h e p resen t situation in Spain is then that Article 9 6 (1 ) C E concerns international treaties in general, w h ereas Article 1 0 (2 ) C E refers only to international treaties a n d agreem ents on h u m a n rights.

O n e may ask why th e Spanish Constitution em bodies tw o clauses on the reception o f international treaties. An in-depth answer to this question can o nly b e given with reference to the period of the Spanish transition to dem ocracy. As is well-known, the Spanish Constitution w as th e result of a transactional negotiation am o n g a num ber of political forces. Several of th e m w ere in o pen opposition to the francoism while others, those w h o w on the majority in th e first general election after the dictatorship, h ad a more am b ig u o u s attitude to the regim e which had just c o m e to an end. This a d d e d to the dif­ ficulties of achieving consensus on the draft constitution. O ne of th e draft Articles w here this consensus was th e most difficult to achieve at th e debates in th e C o n g r e s o d e ¡o s D ip u ta d o s ,the lower H ouse of th e Spanish Parliament, w as Article 2 7(1) w hich regulated the right to education. At this sta g e of the draft Constitution, it had only o n e provision - Article 9 6 quoted above - regulating the reception of international treaties. W hen the project w e n t to the Senate, th e U n io n d e f C e n tro D e m o c ra tic o , th e centre p arty then in office, introduced Article 10(2) initially as a clause of in te g r a tio n of international treaties on hum an rights and finally with the above m entioned in te r p r e ta tio n clause. A nd, in spite of the s u p p o rt that th e Socialist Party and other fo rces of the left had previously ex­ p ressed to the international system s of the protection of hum an rights, th e y strongly o p p o sed th e inclusion of this provision. T he reason for this was to b e found in Article 2 7 of the Constitution itself. The centre had forced th e socialists to recognize "the right of individuals and legal entities to set up teaching establishments" [Article 2 7 (6 )], but the socialist party had su c c e e d e d in not including the right to d ir e c tthem . O nce negotiation on this point had b e e n concluded, the G overnm ent tried to modify it b y introducing Article 1 0 (2 ). According to this Article, all fundam ental rights, including th e right to 176

(2) T

F

D

S

ECHR

I

S

.

2. T

C

C

S

.

176 Article 10(20 of the Spanish Constitution reads as follows: T h e standards relative to the fundamental rights and liberties recognized by the Constitution shall be interpreted in conformity with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the international treaties and agreements thereon ratified by Spain1

education, had to b e interpreted in conform ity with the international treaties in this field ratified by Spain. A m o n g s t them , th e International C ovenant on Civil and Political Rights o f 1 9 6 6 had then only just been ratified. Article 18(4) of th e C ovenant stipulates that th e States have to respect th e liberty of parents o r of legal guardians, “to ensure the religious an d moral education o f their children in conform ity with their ow n convictions". Thanks to the new Article 1 0 (2 ) this provision would b e th e criterion for interpreting Article 2 7 of the new Constitution. This is why th e socialist lead er in the Senate sp o ke of the "parallel Constitution" that w o u ld th ereb y b e created . H ow ever, the Article rem ained unchanged and was incorporated into the final text177.

The question, then, is w hether H u m an Rights treaties are “p art of the internal legal order", following Article 9 6 CE o r are th e y criteria for the interpretation of "the fundam ental rights a n d liberties re co g n ized b y the Constitution", as stated in Article 10(2). initially, the legal literature criticized th e a p p a re n t overlap betw een Articles 96 and 10(2) CE. M oreover, Article 10(2) C E w as said to be "superfluous"178. Conversely, in spite of these earlier studies, there exists a n im portant difference: Article 10 talks ab o u t "interpretation" and it concerns “the s ta n d a rd s relative to the fundam ental rights and liberties recognized b y th e Constitution". H e n c e , it places international treaties on hum an rights

above the Constitution in the sense th a t the Convention has to be interpreted in

177 Nevertheless, it can be said that the interpretation both the center and the socialists gave to the Article 18 of the United Nations Covenant was wrong. The drafted texts of Article 10(2) of the Spanish Constitution are to be found in

Boletín Oficial de fas Cortes, January, 5 and April, 17 of

Constitucional dei Senado of the 23rd of August of 1978, pages 1738-1761. Others sources are

Ljnde (1983:167-72) and Aparicio, M. A (unpublished) "La clausula de interpretación del artículo 10,2 de la Constitución Española como clausula de integración constitucional1 [lecture given at the University of Granada in 1989], according to whom the final formula was directly inspired by Article 6 of the Portuguese Constitution. There is a long bibliography on the Spanish transition to democracy: on the Constitutional drafting process, see Pe c e s Barba, G. (1989)

La elaboración de

la Constitución de 1978, Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucionales.

178 It was stated that by virtue of Article

96

10(2),

[GarridoFalla, F. (l985/2a)

10(2)