Social prevention: paupers and beggars

The idea o f prevention, foreshadow ed in some sectors o f society during the 17th and 18th centuries, was positively supported with new vigour more in the social than the political arena, especially in Spain, France and England, and particularly in connection with the widespread phenomenon o f ‘pauperism and beggary’, criminality,

9 D isc o rsi pcirlam entari II 313 (D ec. 5, 1878), cited by F. Chabod, Storia della p o litic o estera. 436, n.3. Apart from liberal ideas, F. Crispi was, in political action, decisively authoritarian.

“The theory o f repression b eloved by Zanardelli and Cairoli w as put aside and replaced by prevention; and even in prevention, C rispi’s manner w as quite brusque

10 Letters, Feb. 21 and July 2 3 ,1 8 7 8 , E III 298-299 and 366-367

11 However, whether in pedagogy or politics, theory or practice, the boundaries between the tw o system s w ere never strictly defined. Declarations o f intent, certainty, w as always accom panied by fears and apprehensions follow ed by authoritarian and to som e extent

‘repressive’ interventions. Even Don B osco’s Preventive System had “a word on punishments” . 12 Cf. F. Chabod, S toria della p o litic o estera 445. Count Edward de Lounay, Savoiard, Italy’s m inister in Berlin and an authoritarian, p essim istically commented: “w e have com e to realise once again how irksome it can be for these high civil servants and jurists to plan som ething practical and productive with regard to the m easures to be taken either for prevention or repression... One could also hope that governm ents will distance them selves from their traditional routine and openly fight against an association which only has the ruin o f society by every revolutionary means as its aim, along with the family”, (cited by F. Chabod, S to ria della p o litic o esterna. 450, n.2.)

the required help for children, and education. Particular attention is given to neglected youngsters, runaw ays, vagrants and beggars.13

Italy faced the sam e problem s also du rin g the 19th century, w ith p re ­ industrialisation and industrialisation, along with the problem o f urbanisation, when farm ers and m ountain dw ellers were looking for less precarious w ork and life conditions.

This phenomenon o f urbanisation was a real disorder, a scandal for aristocrats and moderates, and remedies were sought in the guidelines projected by Luis Vives in his w ork, De subventions pauperitm (On how to m eet the needs o f the poor) 1526.

T hese rem edies offered w elfare assistance, education, and w ork in the French Hopitaux Generaux and in the English ‘W o rk h o u ses’.

The problem was also up for debate in the Kingdom o f Sardinia during the 19lh century. H ow everthings leaned decisively towards ‘prevention’.14

A ccording to a Rom an priest and future Cardinal, C. L, M orichini (1805 - 1879), the term ‘preventive’ includes the entire gam ut o f charitable undertakings on behalf o f the poor o f Rome: hospitals, institutions for foundlings, orphans, the elderly, widows; alms-collecting and first-aid organizations, schools. Ideally these charitable undertakings took care o f a poor person from birth, throughout his education, in moments o f difficulty and unemployment and finally, in old age and sickness. “All the efforts made by people motivated by an intelligent kind o f charity are directed toward separating the really poor from the pretender, toward preventing the onset o f misery rather than going to its aid, and toward instilling people’s thinking with the need to have a spirit o f foresight, economy, the acquisition o f virtue” ,15

13 Cf. J.P. Gutton, L a so c ié té et les Pauvres. L ’exem ple de la g é n é ra lité de Lyon, 1534-1789, (Paris, Les Belles L i t r e s 1971 ); G. Huton, The P oor o f eighteenth-century France, 1750-1789, (Oxford, Clarendon Press 1974); J.P. Gutton, L 'etat et la m endicité dans le prem ière m oitié dii X V flle siècle, A uvergne Beaujolais Forez Lyonais [Feurs], Centre d ’Etudes Forèziennes sur I 'H istoire de la P auvreté, sous la direction de M. M o lla i, (Paris, Publications de la Sorbonne 1974); A. M onticon, ed., La sto ria dei poveri. P auperism o e assisten za n ell'età m oderna., (Rome: Edizioni Studium 1985), 12,300 pages, (with a w ell thought-out bibliography)

14 Cf. D. Maldini, “Classi dirigenti governo e pauperismo 1800 -1 8 5 0 ”, in A. A gosti and G.

M. Bravo, eds. S to ria d el m ovim ento o p eraio del socia lism o e delle lo tte so c ia li in Piem onte, 1. D a ll 'età p re in d u stria le alla fin e d ell 'ottocento, (Bari, D e donato 1979), 185-217.

15 D e g l’Istitu ti di p u b b lic a carità e d ’istruzione p rim a ria in Roma. S aggio sto r ic o e sta tistic o by M ons. D. Carlo Luigi M orichini, (Rom e, Stamperia d ell’O spizio A postolico at PietroAurelj 1835), 1st Edition, 10-11. The work would be expanded and published in a further two editions with a slightly m odified title: D e g l’Istitu ti...p rim a ria d elle p rig io n i in R om a...

N ew edition, (Rom e, Tip. Marini and Co. 1942), 2 .; D e g li istitu ti d i carità p e r la su sstin en za e l ’edu cazione dei p o v e r i e dei p rig io n ie ri in Roma. L ib ri tre del C ardinale C arlo Luigi M o rich in i... .latest Edition. (Rom e, Chamber printing press establishm ent 1870) 816 pages.

Cited from the 1835 edition.

C ount C harles H ilarion Petitti di R oreto (1790-1850), a Piedm ontese and enlightened conservative, am ong the provisions m ore suited to rem ove the general causes o f beggary, indicated some which were openly preventive:

Promote and favour the elementaiy instruction o f the people o f the lower classes by directing them especially toward true religious and moral principles which convey to a human being the clear conviction that he has an obligation to work for his own livelihood, and which make him realise the profit he gets from follow ing them. Promote, favour and encourage the opening o f ‘savings banks’... These ‘savings banks’ familiarise a person with the idea that he needs an insurance for the future and that he also needs to economise; they keep him away from vices, and they guarantee reserve funds which can help him, should he be pressed by some need, without being forced to rely on public or private charity.

Likewise promote, protect and encourage ‘mutual aid societies’ among the w orkers.16 Following these indirect suggestions..., an enlightened, attentive and paternal government is able to provide good morals, tranquillity, strength and comforts, for the entire population ,17

By exam ining the repressive and directive laws issued on beggary actually in place in m ost European states, the Count also highlighted some indications in line with

‘prevention” and which have a positive dimension.

If the causes o f evil are not removed, repressive and coercive laws cannot always achieve their g o a l... Therefore, any government which aims at making true prosperity and morality accessible to everyone, should establish its own civil set-up, with all kinds o f study and diligent care, so that once the causes of beggary have been removed through indirect methods, methods more direct and suited to the situation provided by the time and place might be employed to prevent and obstruct the onset o f this deadly social plague.18

19th century philanthropists w ere fam iliar with the them e o f ‘redeem ing the needy’ using education as prevention. Coincidentally, the same theme as M orichini’s is developed by the Frenchm an, Baron Joseph-M arie Degerando (or De Gerando or De G erando 1772-184 2 )19 in his m onum ental w ork Della Pubblica Beneficenza

16 S aggio su l buon g overn o della m endacità, deg li istitu ti di beneficenza e d elle carceri, by Count D. Carlo Ilarione Petiti di Roreto, 1. (Turin, B occa 1837), 40-42.

I7C.I. Petiti di Roreto, S aggio su l buon govern o, 1.45

l8C.l. Petiti di Roreto, S aggio 1, 111-112; on the inadequacies o f existing repressive legislation in various European States, cf. pp. 90-112

19 Cf. S. Moravio on him, La scienza dell ’uomo nel Settecento., (Bari, Laterza 1970), 223-238.

(Concerning public charity): Part two, dedicated to the Istituzioni destinate a prevenire I ’indigenza (Institutions aimed at preventing poverty).20

O f all the ways o f performing charity, the one which prevents the onset o f misery at its roots is the most fruitful and healthy. Now, there certainly could be no preventive charity more useful than the education o f the poor. Here in fact, the two main features o f preventive charity come together. This type o f charity responds to the present needs and provides for the future... Education will provide the poor with the moral, intellectual and physical strength they need, and this constitutes the wealth o f a human being; in turn it provides the poor with what is indispensable in life and will grant them the strength to fight against unforeseen misfortunes,21

The more we study the causes which produce poverty, the more we shall come to realize that lack o f education is one which produces the greatest number o f poor and delinquent individuals. One o f the greatest services we can render to the poor is that o f keeping the children, at least, from such a deadly influence.

A good education will guarantee that one day these children will take care o f their old parents and comfort them.22

The education process begins with kindergarten for children below seven. It continues w ith prim ary school, and w ith N ig ht and Sunday schools for those who were not able to take advantage o f previous instructional programs.

The ro u ndin g -o ff o f their education com es from advice, m oral and legal assistance in th eir choice o f profession, w ork contracts draw n up during the apprenticeship period ensuring that their protection is guaranteed by employers who could happen to be exploitive.23

20 D elia p u b b lic a beneficenza. Treatise by Baron de G érando... Florence, C. Torti 1842- 1846 in 4 parts, divided into 7 volum es: I. L 'in d ig e n za c o n sid e ra ta n e ’ su o i r a p p o r ti coll 'economia sociale-, II. D elle is titu z io n i relative all 'educazione de 'poveri', III. D e ''pubblici so c c o rsi’, IV. D elle regole gen era li della p u b b lica beneficenza con siderate n el di loro re g im e’, French edition, D e la bien faisan cepu bliqu e. Paris 1 8 3 9 ,4 .

21 J.M. De Gerando, D elia p u b b lica beneficenza, 2, (Florence, C.Torti 1843), 249-250.

22 li visita to re d e l p o v e ro by Baron D e Gerando, (Florence, C. Torti 1846), 103.

23 J.-M. De Gerando, Il visitatore del p o v e ro 105-117. The solution is also tied to preventive measures at the financial level: cf, work cited, D ella p u b b lic a beneficenza, part 2, book 3 ,5 , (Florence, C. Torti 1844). D e ’ m ezzi g en era li a tti a m igliorare la con dizione d elle cla ssi d isagiate, Chap ì. D e ’ m ezzi g en era li d i p re v e n ir l ’in digen za che otten er si pon no da alcune m odificazion i su l sistem a d ella so c ia le econ om ica’, Chap 2. D ella organ izzazione de! lavoro;

Chap 3. D el m iglioram ento d e ’ costum i nella classe d e ’ lavoran ti [especially item 5 D el co n te n ta rsi d elle c la s s i la b o r io s e ’, and item 8 D e l la v o ro co n sid e ra to com e m ezzo d i educazione]; Chap. 6. Influenza della religion e su lla m orale e su l ben essere della classe la b o rio sa .

The educational initiative o f Ferrante Aporti stems from a similar belief: education begins right from kindergarten. W riting to Giacom o Savarese, from N aples, Aporti says:

The poverty o f people, as you yourself have pointed out with supportive proof, stems from the lack o f education which renders a human being ‘lazy’ and

‘im prudent’. Poverty will be removed by means of a public and well-organised education program offered people from childhood onwards within institutions created for this purpose. Beggary which is the source o f so many other vices for both sexes, is a shameful vice stemming from poverty, and it was completely got rid o f through the efficient means o f schools for children, repeating principles such as these day after day. A human being is born to work; every person should provide for his own livelihood, with his own work, and should not live off the fruit o f someone else’s work. This is what is demanded by the principles of natural justice and religion.24

Finally, C. Cattaneo, a moderate Progressive, offers a synthesis which contains political, social and educational features, all seen from a perspective which is positively

‘preventive’ and social welfare-minded. Cattaneo analyses the different positions held by theorists and legislators about the causes o f and possible remedies for m isery and beggary. His personal option is for foresight, prevention and social welfare.

In the m idst of all these discordant debates, some clearer truths arise. The following truths undoubtedly seem useful: the education of the poor; the removal o f all kinds o f beggaiy; the foundation o f ‘savings banks’ and o f ‘mutual aid societies’; deductions from em ployees’ salaries which would be given back later on in pension form, and other societies of similar nature. All o f this helps a private person to provide for himself, saving the m eans needed for an honourable retirement.25

REM A RK : In reference to problem s o f the poor, w e m ight recall the term s

‘repressive’ and ‘p reventive’ as used by the A nglican ecclesiastic, Thom as Robert Malthus (1766-1834). These terms are found in his famous work “Essay on the principle o f population as it affects the future im provem ent o f society” .26

A ccording to M althus, poverty is destined to grow because the production of subsistence m eans is slower than population growth. The only possible way for us to

24 Letter, April 5, 1842, in A. Gambaro, F erran te A p o rti e g li asili del R isorgim ento, 2, (Turin, Grafica Piemontese 1937), 479-480

25 C. Cattaneo, D ella beneficenza p u b b lica , in O pere edite e d inedite by Carlo Cattaneo, . 5 S crìtti di econom ia p u b b lic a ,. 2, (Florence, Le M onnier 1988), 305

26 The first edition is 1798, but the follow ing are authoritative, beginning from an edition in 1803, com pletely re-worked, follow ed by other editions as far as the sixth in 1826.

improve upon the condition o f the poor is “to lower the population to the level o f the poor”.27 Now, the obstacles which constantly react more or less forcefully with every society and keep the population at the subsistence level can be reduced to two m ain categories: som e are preventive, others are repressive.28 R epressive obstacles are wars, fam ine, plagues and the many effects o f m isery and vice. The main obstacle or preventive means is “moral restraint, which is to say postponing marriage, abandoning the idea o f marriage if someone is not sure that he can support his offspring, or sexual voluntary continence and keeping the virtue o f chastity”.29