A comparison of crime and its treatment amongst girls in Britain and Belgium

E U R O P E A N U N IV E R S IT Y IN S T IT U T E , F L O R E N C E

EUROPEAN POLICY UNIT

rfP

320

EUR

E U I W O R K I N G P A P E R N o .

87/303

A COMPARISON OF CRIME

AND ITS TREATMENT A M O N G S JA ilB lS

IN BRITAIN AND BEI/flUM

„

*

W

? \

Mary EATON and Lode

J

|

BADIA FIESOLANA, SAN DOMENICO (FI)

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

T h i s p a p e r s h o u l d not be r e p r o d u c e d in w h o l e or in p a r t w i t h o u t p r i o r p e r m i s s i o n of t h e a u t h o r s (c) M a r y E a t o n an d L o d e U a l g r a u e P r i n t e d in I t a l y in 1 9 8 ? E u r o p e a n U n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t e B a d i a F i e s o l a n a 1 - 5 0 0 1 6 S a n D o m e n i c o (Fi) I t a l y

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

PREFACE

In November 1985, as a result of generous sponsorship by the Italian government (Ministero degli Interni) and the European Policy Unit of the EUI, a conference was held in Florence on "The prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency among girls in the EEC: towards an evaluation". Seventy-two scholars and practitioners attended, from eleven different European countries. The purpose of the conference was to celebrate the United Nations Year of Youth by constructive discussion about how and why girls and young women come to the attention of the criminal justice and welfare systems, how they are treated, and how practices for the care and control of girls and young women might be improved.

The value of comparative work of this kind was amply demonstrated both theoretically and in terms of policy and practice. The big lack was clearly of studies designed and intended for comparative purposes. The 27 conference papers collected together in ten EUI Working Papers (of which this volume is one) reveal both these strengths and this need.

Theoretically what was surprising and of importance were the similarities between countries with very different cultures and political economies in the way girls and young women are treated. Their employment prospects are everywhere worse; their sexuality is heavily policed by their male and female peers, with the ultimate sanction of non-marriageability to a 'good' man having the potential of causing both economic and social and psychic pain. The efforts of a minority of girls and young women to break out of this cycle appear to be policed by state agencies - the welfare and justice systems - although the part played in some countries by private (often religious) agencies remains to be explored. For other girls non-conformity could not properly be under­ stood as rebellion: but whatever its cause the directions and occasions of control were similar.

This cross-nation similarity suggests that a theoretical reduction of these constraints in the direction of familial coupling to an effect of capitalism or of class structure is not adequate, given the wide variations in political economies already alluded to.

The second important similarity which seemed to emerge - although requiring much more detailed work before adequate theorising is achieved - is that policy in relation to delinquent girls is for some matters based on boys' behaviour patterns and career paths. This emerged most clearly in relation to British and Dutch ways of dealing with drug offenders, in the contributions by Thom and Blom (WP 87/298) . Such policies, being inappropriate, were also ineffective. But for the most part both court decision making and the practice of subsequent sentences were gendered. This, however, seemed to the

contributors to be inappropriate too. The demand, therefore, is not for formal sameness but for appropriate differences in welfare practices in relation to girls, based on careful feminist and sociological analysis of their life spaces and possibilities rather than on male mythologies about the needs and natures of young females. It is to this end that more detailed comparative work must be directed - a project which the conference participants already have in hand.

Maureen Cain

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

A _ Ç 0 M P A R I S 0 N _ 0 F _ C R I M E _ A N D _ I T S _ T R E A T M E N T A M O N G S T G I R L S IN B R I T A I N A N D B E L G I U M M a r y E a t o n D e s c r i p t i v e m a t e r i a l from G r e a t B r i t a i n p. 1 L o d e W a l g r a v e A com m e n t on j ud s t ati s t i e s abo ut some r e s e a r c h da g i r l s ' d e l i n q u en i c i al g i r l s a n d on ta a b o u t cy in B e l g i u m p . 4 5

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

T H E P R E V E N T I O N A N D T R E A T M E N T O F J U V E N I L E D E L I N Q U E N C Y A M O N G G I R L S IN T H E EEC: T O W A R D S A H E V A L U A T I O N D E S C R I P T I V E M A T E R I A L F R O M G R E A T B R I T A I N C o n t e n t s S c o t l a n d : O f f e n d e r s , O f f e n c e s a n d P e n a l t i e s E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s : O f f e n d e r s , O f f e n c e s a n d P e n a l t i e s S e n t e n c i n g D e l i n q u e n t G i r l s : R e c e n t S t u d i e s S e l f - r e p o r t S t u d i e s R o l e of V o l u n t a r y a n d P r i v a t e A g e n c i e s F o o t n o t e R e f e r e n c e s In c o m p i l i n g t h i s m a t e r i a l I w a s g r e a t l y a s s i s t e d by: H e l e n E d w a r d s a n d J i l l M a t t h e w s of N . A . C . R . O . T a m a r a F l a n a g a n of t h e R a i n e r F o u n d a t i o n M r s . M. A n d e r s o n of T h e S c o t t i s h H o m e a n d H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t a n d J u l i e W a r r e n of L o t h i a n R e g i o n a l C o u n c i l I a m v e r y g r a t e f u l t o t h e m . M a r y E a t o n St. M a r y ' s C o l l e g e S t r a w b e r r y H i l l O c t o b e r 1985

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

2

SCOTLAND

Unlike the system in England and Wales which is a modified

version of the adult system, the juvenile justice system in

Scotland was designed specifically to deal with children.

In S c o t l a n d t h e a g e of c r i m i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y is 8, a n d the j u v e n i l e c o u r t s d e a l w i t h y o u n g p e o p l e b e l o w t h e a g e of 16, u n l e s s t h e y o u n g p e r s o n is s u b j e c t t o c a r e o r s u p e r v i s i o n in w h i c h c a s e , as in E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s , t h e j u v e n i l e c o u r t ' s j u r i s d i c t i o n is e x t e n d e d . In t h e S o c t t i s h s y s t e m t h e j u v e n i l e j u s t i c e p r o c e s s b e g i n s w h e n a c h i l d is r e f e r r e d to t h e R e p o r t e r . T h i s is u s u a l l y d o n e b y t h e p o l i c e , b u t is s o m e t i m e s d o n e b y s c h o o l s o r s o c i a l w o r k d e p a r t m e n t s . T h e R e p o r t e r i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e c a s e s r e f e r r e d a n d d e c i d e s w h e t h e r t h e r e are l e g a l g r o u n d s f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n . T h r e e o p t i o n s a r e t h e n a v a i l a b l e ; 'no a c t i o n ' w h i c h m a y i n v o l v e r e f e r r a l t o t h e p o l i c e for a ' w ar n i n g ' , r e f e r r a l t o t h e s o c i a l w o r k d e p a r t m e n t , a n d r e f e r r a l t o a c h i l d r e n ' s h e a r i n g . A r e f e r r a l t o t h e s o c i a l w o r k d e p a r t m e n t a l l o w s for v o l u n t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n , w h i l e a p e r c e i v e d n e e d f o r c o m p u l s o r y m e a s u r e s of c a r e w o u l d b e m e t by r e f e r r a l t o a c h i l d r e n ' s h e a r i n g . C a s e s i n v o l v i n g v e r y s e r i o u s c r i m e s a r e d e a l w i t h b y t h e j u d i c i a l s y s t e m . C h i l d r e n ’s h e a r i n g s a r e c o n d u c t e d b y m e m b e r s o f the c h i l d r e n ' s p a n e l . T h e t h r e e p a n e l m e m b e r s a l w a y s i n c l u d e at l e a s t o n e m a n a n d at l e a s t o n e w o m a n . T h e h e a r i n g m a y t a k e p l a c e d u r i n g t h e d a y or d u r i n g t h e e v e n i n g s o t h a t t h e y o u n g p e r s o n ' s p a r e n t s m a y a t t e n d . E a c h f a m i l y is g i v e n a s e p a r a t e t i m e d a p p o i n t m e n t . A s o c i a l w o r k e r is a l s o p r e s e n t . T h e r e is a l a c k of p r o c e d u r a l c o n s t r a i n t as a l l t h o s e c o n c e r n e d a r e e n c o u r a g e d t o j o i n in t h e d i s c u s s i o n a n d p u t t h e i r p o i n t of v i e w . A r e p o r t for t h e A s s o c i a t i o n of D i r e c t o r s of S o c i a l S e r v i c e s in E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s s t r e s s e d the v a l u e of t h i s a p p r o a c h : M u c h i m p o r t a n c e is a t t a c h e d t o a c h i e v i n g m e a n i n g f u l d i s c u s s i o n w i t h t h e c h i l d a n d h i s p a r e n t s . W h i l s t t h e f a m i l y a re w e l l a w a r e t h a t t h e p a n e l m e m b e r s a r e t h e r e to e x e r c i s e a u t h o r i t y , t h e Lack of p r o c e d u r a l a n d e v i d e n t i a l c o n s t r a i n t s m a k e s it m u c h e a s i e r f or t h e m t o c o n t r i b u t e t h a n in t h e j u v e n i l e c o u r t . A D S S 1 9 8 5 : 2 3 F o r m a l w a r n i n g s in S c o t l a n d , l ik e c a u t i o n s in E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s , a r e u s u s a l l y g i v e n t o t he c h i l d , in t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e p a r e n t s , at a p o l i c e s t a t i o n . M o s t of the i n i t i a l r e p o r t s to t h e p o l i c e o n c h i l d r e n c o n c e r n b o y s . D u r i n g t h e p a s t s i x y e a r s g i r l s h a v e n e v e r a c o c u n t e d fo r m o r e t h a n 18 p e r c e n t of t h e r e p o r t s , a n d in 1979 a c c o u n t e d f o r as f e w as 10 p e r c e n t ( T a b l e s 1 a n d 2). T a b l e 3 s h o w s t h e n u m b e r o f y o u n g p e r s o n s a g a i n s t w h o m a c h a r g e w a s p r o v e d in c o u r t . T h e d e c r e a s i n g n u m b e r of u n d e r 16s in t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s is a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e a v a i L a b i l i t y , for t h i s a ge g r o u p , of t h e a l t e r n a t i v e p r o c e d u r e of r e f e r r a l t o the R e p o r t e r . In b o t h age g r o u p s g i r l s a n d y o u n g w o m e n f o r m a v e r y s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of t h e t o t a l ( T a b l e s 3 a n d 4).

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

3

TABLE 1 Initial Reports on Children: Age and Sex of Children

Scotland

Age and Sex of Child

Number of Reports

1977 1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

Males & females 26,591 23,917

25,280

25,818

26,300

24,320

13 5,935 5,427 5,256 5,576 5,341 4,928 14

8,208

8,411 8,311 8,471 8,949

8,126

15 10,350 9,854 10,979 11,521 11,874 11,095

16

& over 217

225

298

250

136

168

Males 21,747

21,272

22,712

22,328

22,749 21,133

13

5,120 4,705 4,792 4,728 4,572 4,136

-\k

7,142 7,473 7,551 7,256 7,640 7,054

15

9,294

8,887

10,092 10,129 10,414 9,794

16

& over

191

207

277 215 123 146 Females 4,844 2,645

2,568

3,490 3,551 3,187

13

815

722

464 848 769 792

14

1

,066

938 760 1,215 1,309 1,072

15

1,056 967 887 1,392 1,460 1,301

16

& over

26

18

21

35 13

22

Source: Scottish Horae and Health Dept. (

1983

)

TABLE 2 Initial Reports on Children: Percentage Distribution

Between Boys and Girls Aged 15-16 and Over

Sex of Child

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

Males

82

%

89

%

90

%

86

%

86

%

87

%

Females

18

%

11

%

10

% 14% 14% 13%

Source: Scottish Home and Health Dept. (1983)

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

-

k

-TABLE 3 Persons Under 21 Against Whom a Charge is Proven

Scotland

Year

Males Females Total

Under 16 16-20 Under 16

16-20

Under 16

16-20

1973

2,438

50

, c*5

140

3,871

2,578

53,916

1974

2,236

51,927

135

4, 243

2,371

56,170

1975

1,830

51,672

118

4,223 1,948 55,896

1976

1,712

51,545

110

3,952

1,822

55,497

1977

1,412 50,509 104 3,618 1,516 54,127

1978

1,353 54,601

90

3,999 1,443

58,600

1979

_{887 52,159}

60

3,589 947 55,748

1980

924

61,683

93 ^,316 1,017 65,999

1981

822

60,013

73 4,595 895 64,608

1982

642 59,423 25 4,170 667 63,593

1983

645

59,162

45 4,444

690

63,605

Source: Scottish Home and Health Dept. (

1983

,

1985

)

TABLE

Scotland

Proportionate Distribution of Hale and Female Offenders, Aged Under 21, Against Whom a Charge

is Proven

Year

Under 16s 16-20

Male Female Male Female

1973

95%

3%

93%

7%

1974

9k%

6%

92%

8%

1975

9k%

6%

92%

8%

1976

9k%

6%

93%

7%

1977

93%

7

%

93%

7%

1978

9k%

6%

93%

7%

1979

9k%

6%

9k%

6%

1980

_91%

_9%

_93%

_7%

1981

92Si

8%

93%

7%

1982

965

S

k%

98%

r]O/0

1983

93%

7%

93%

7%

Source: Scottish Home and Health Dept. (1983, 1985)

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

5 T a b l e s 5 a n d 6 s h o w t h e s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n o f g i r l s a n d w o m e n i n v o l v e d in t h e m a i n c a t e g o r i e s of c r i m e in 1 983. T h e n u m b e r s of g i r l s a n d w o m e n , b o y s a n d men, f o u n d g u i l t y of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of c r i m e o r o f f e n c e a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of c r i m e s a n d o f f e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e p o p u l a t i o n s o f o f f e n d e r s d u r i n g t h e p a s t d e c a d e a r e s h o w n in T a b l e s 7 a n d 8. For b o t h m a l e a n d f e m a l e o f f e n d e r s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t c r i m e is d i s h o n e s t y , b u t for t he f e m a l e s t h e h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of c h a r g e s in t h i s c a t e g o r y m e a n s a l o w e r i n v o l v e m e n t in m o s t o t h e r t y p e s of c r i m e . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of p e n a l t i e s a m o n g y o u n g m e n a n d y o u n g w o m e n is s i m i l a r t o t h a t r e c o r d e d f o r E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s . F o r t h o s e o v e r 16 t h e f i n e is t h e m o s t u s u a l p e n a l t y for b o t h s e x e s ; t h e p r o p o r t i o n of m a l e o f f e n d e r s r e c e i v i n g c u s t o d i a l s e n t e n c e s is h i g h e r t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o p o r t i o n o f f e m a l e o f f e n d e r s , w h i l e t h e p r o p o r t i o n of f e m a l e o f f e n d e r s r e c e i v i n g t h e 'lig ht e r ' s e n t e n c e s of d i s c h a r g e , c a u t i o n o r p r o b a t i o n is h i g h e r t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o p o r t i o n o f m a l e o f f e n d e r s ( T a b l e s 9 - 1 2 ) .

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

6

Tables 5 and 6 show the small proportion of girls and women involved in

the main categories of crime in

1983

.

The numbers of girls and women, boys and men, found guilty of different t y p e s o f c r i m e or o f f e n c e a n d the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

c r i m e s a n d o f f e n c e s b e t w e e n the p o p u l a t i o n s of o f f e n d e r s d u r i n g the p a s t d e c a d e are s h o w n in T a b l e s 7 a n d 8.

TABLE 5 Offenders under 16 by Type of Crime or Offence

Scotland

1983

Males Females Total

Crimes Violence 38 (972) 1 (32)

39

(

1002

) Indecency 13 (1002) - (-)

13

(

1002

) Dishonesty 334

(95%)

17 (52)

351

(

1002

) Damage 37 (952) 2 (52)

39

(

1002

) Other 25 (782) 7 (22)

32

(

1002

) Offences Miscellaneous __ 119 (892) 15 (112) 134 (io o 2 ) Motor

_

79 (962) 3 (42) 82 (io o 2 )

Source: Scottish Home and Health Dept. (

1985

)

TABLE 6 Offenders 16-20 by Type of Crime or Offence

Scotland 1983

Males Females Total

Crimes Violence

1,450

(

962

) 63 (42) 1 ,5 1 3 (1002) Indecency 190 (32) 111 (372) 301 (1002) Dishonesty 16,218 (

912

)

1,678

(

92

) 17,8 9 6 (

1002

) Damage 2,683 (962) 118 (42) 2,801 d o o 2 ) Other

2,291

(902)

289

(

102

) 2,550 (io o 2 ) Offences Miscellaneous 18,365 (922)

1,580

(82) 19,945 (1002) Motor 17,965 (972) 635 (32)

18,600

(1002)

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

Digitised

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

7

TABLE 7

Scotland

Offenders Aged Under 16 Found Guilty in Court of Different Types of Crime or Offence

Sex and Year r y p e o f C r i m e Offence T o ! Violence Inde­ cency Dis­

honesty Damage Other Mise. Motor Perc^Kitej > Whok _{W u m W '}

Males

1974

8

1

<+8 5 1 3 2 6

100

* 2 ,2 3 6

1975

6 • 1 5 3 7 1 26 6

100

1 , 8 3 0

1976

5 1 5 2

7

1

27

7

100

1 , 7 1 2

1977

If 1 5 7 6 1

22

9

100

1,1*12

1978

1*

1

_{5^ 5} 1 23 12

100

_{1 , 3 5 3}

1979

3

1

5 2 7 1 2 3 13

100

8 8 7

1980

3 1 5 0 5 1

27

13

100

92*+

1981

i* 1 _{51 7} 1

20

16

100

822

1982

5 1 1*9 6 1+

21

1i*

100

61*2

1983

6 2 5 2 6 k

18

12

100

_61*5 Females

197

^ 3 - ¥* ₅ 1 2

100

_{13 5} 19 7 5 1 -

62

3 3 29 2

100

118

19 7 6 6 1*1 ₅ 2 38 7

100

1 1 0

1977

2 1 i*8 5 1*

37

i*

100

101+

1978

2 - i*6 9 2

32

9

100

9 0 19 7 9 2 -

1*8

2 2

37

10

100

*

60

1 9 8 0 1 1

1*8

3 5 28 13

100

* _{9 3} 19 8 1 , k _- !*9 8 1

27

10

100

* _{7 3} 19 8 2 - - 5 2 i* 12 28 1*

100

₂₅ 1 9 8 3 2 - 38 i* 16 3 3 7

100

*+5

* Numbers do not sum to 100 because they have been rounded to the nearest whole number.

Source: Scottish Home and Health Dept. (1985)

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

8

TABLE

8

_ Offenders Aged 16-20 Found Guilty of

Different Types of Crime or Offence Scotland

Sex and Year

t y p e o f C r i m e Offence

Violence Inde­_{cency honesty}Dis­ Damage Other Mise. Motor

Males

1974

2 1 19 4

1

<t

8

25

100

5 1 ,9 2 7

1975

2 • 1 21 3

1

45

26

100

* 5 1 ,6 7 2

1976

2 1 23 3

1

*t3 27

100

5 1 ,5 4 5

1977

2 1 25 3

1

<t

2

27

100

* _50,509

1978

2 1 2% 3

2

itO 28

100

₅

i t ,

6

o i

1979

2 1 23 3

2

it1 30

100

* _{5 2 ,1 5 9}

1980

2

_(-)1

22 4

2

₃₈

33

100

* 614685

1981

2 (-)1

24

4 2

37

31 100 6 0 ,0 13

1982

2 <-)1 28

₃

₃₃

29 100*

59,423

1983

2 (-)1

27

5 it

₃₁

₃₀

100* 5 9 ,16 2 Females 1974 1 1 28 2 2

51

15 100 it,

24

3 1975 1 1

32

2

₃

46

15 100

4,224

1976 1 1 '

₂₉

2 2

50

15 100 3 ,9 52 1977 1 1

₃₁

2 2 <t8 15 100 3,618 1978 1 1 c-)1

32

2 2

₄₅

17

100

_3,999

1979 1

₃₆

2 2

43

16 100 3 ,589 1980 1 (-)1

33

3 2 it2 18 100* 4 ,3 16 1981 1 1

₃₉

2 2

39

16 100

_4,595

1982 1 ₃

₄₀

₃ it

₃₄

₁₅

100 4 ,1 7 0 1933 1 ₃

₃₈

₃ 6

36

lit 100*

4,444

* Numbers do not sum to 100 as they have been rounded to the nearest whole number.

(-)^ Less than 0.5#

Source: Scottish Home and Health Dept. (1985)

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

B L E °1 M a i n R e s u l t s of P r o c e e d i n g s A g a i n s t O f f e n d e r s U n d e r 1 6

-

A

-v~ CO m IN ₁ xr_{x~ 1 1} m in 1 d 9 0_T— VO CO XT _CO ON co in x~ m d ON 1 1 0 d-co x~ r~ vo c- d d in CO x~ m ,P*h co CO on| x~ I T- l co CO n- m XT CN- OO co X in d_f\j a)_r* CO d-_vo rvj ON co CN m .ÏL r I CO_o>| r~ I c\j 1 CO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n-O' kn ON d- IN O co r* _kn u\ (N IN-_CO 1 1 1 1 1 IN 1 co_CO d CO IN_{m 1 (0}OO _{1 1 1 1 1 1} CO ₁ KN_ON O CO_CT'I r~ I VO in CO x- m X~ _CO (NJ d-X V a u\ IN 1 cokn 1 1 1 1 CO coON r~ 0 m CO ON in 0 O N On| r I kn 1 X- 1 1 1 1 1 1 VO « O co co ON ON x~ ON 2 C\J co UN_KN IN 1 O_m 1 1 1 1 1 ON 1 OO_CO <c » 0 co O w T~ 1 CO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ON CO s ON O X IN KN KN (\J x- _{1 IN- 1 1 1} 1 1 d- 1 in d r— X- v- KN r~ >H in _knkn O_{v- x-}CO _{I K\}m _{1 1 1 1 1 1} ON _{1 3} M x in] OM x~ I 0 d ON m X- ON co X m s ON x~m 1 co_d- 1 1 1 1 1 ONx~ d"r- r-co ON VO_{(VJ T-} CO_{r- 1 OJ}VO kn O 1 1 1 1 1 SI x~ ? in co CXI IN KN KN co 2: m s (0r— CO 1 0UN 1 1 1 1 1 COx— 1 x-IN_x~ in kn CO in ON co OO pH KN x— co 1 <0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 in| r-O' r-_{2: m}in _{VO in}X X— _{VO 1} 0 _{1 1 1} d- _{1 1} Q_O KN Q_KN VO r~ co UN CO CO v-in n- OO d- UN x~ _{d co 1 CO 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 KN} in] On| v- N- ON d x- _co x- _CO S 2: IN _{O- (\J}( ) x~ 1 d- 1 1 1 1 1 kn VO co CO_co G g< O G (0 xd -P _{<1) bC}Q) G_{O g} -P_cd 10_G id₀ G G_{0 ”9} 3 +> G g <D cd rH to 3 ro 0 -p _{-P 7^} id 3 cd -p 0 -P 0 rH X4 •rt ert O 0 g xl u O M -P G G G x: •H G « O O -P XI G <u W O +j 10 10 3 0 6 H to id E "O 3 T3 •rH O G W 73 EH X> -H u tu xd •H O G 3 G O 0 0 0 «n O G O ur ce : S c o t t i s h H o m e a n d H e a l t h D e p t . (

19

85

)

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

Digitised

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

B L L

yO

D i s t r i b u t i o n of R e s u l t s o f P r o c e e d i n g s A m o n g O f f e n d e r s U n d e r 16 IO -o o (-) L e s s t ha n 0. 5/ ° * N u m b e r s do n o t s u m to 1 0 0 a s t h e y h a v e b e e n r o u n d e d t o n e a r e s t w h o l e n u m b e r r c e : S c o t t i s h H o m e a n d H e a l t h D e p t . (

198

5

)

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

Digitised

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

LE ^ Main Results o f Pr oceedings Against Offe nd ers 16 -2 0 c ot la nd u -H V

3

X f a m l CO O ^ S O CO VO O V- 0 -

0

-

3

- CO r -m 0 0 1 m o j m 1 1 c o ■ *- 1 O (M r-m c o 00 m v o c o v o r - o - o m o j v- m o j m -3- -3- v o c o 0 - *- OJ 0 o j » 0 r - _

3

-

1

O CO OJ

1

VO m OJ * - -

3

- -3--

3

--

3

--

3

-OJ VO *— c o m OÜI CO CO a J - ^ - v O O - V- v o -

3

- 0 - m m <- (N 1 rvi cm i i v o r - 1 1 00 * • R r - r - r - m M- 0 m 0 CO O- -

3

" m o m -

3

- c o c o o - m m OJ O OJ

1

O OJ m

1

r - o T—

1

IN V- m OJ r - -

3

-0 r 3 -m OJ J -c o m

fa

| CO O ' a o o j m o j o j m o -

3

- v - v o v o o o o j oj T- i i m m i i O OJ OJ v m c o o j o j m r - c o m o j m o m -3- c o c o m <- m t>- 0 - c o v o 3 o j m r - m o c - 1 v o v o 0 1 VO O- r - ■

3

-m c o m -3-m 0 0 v o

fa

O l CO_col 2: f a o l o l r

-1

2: -

3

- -

3

- 0 m 0 VO V- 0 vo* c o 0 0 - 1 1 1 _j- m 1 1 1 CO OJ 0 m m o j m c o c o 0 - oj o m r - m v o 00 t>- v- v o 0 0 CO OJ o j -

3

- o T - m i 1 c o v o 0 VO ^ O v o m

-3

m c o v o v o v o Q 0 01 m o - 0 - c o m o j m m o - m i 1 1 -3- o j 1 VO v v o OJ VO r N CO r CO r * VO IN CO VO CO CO m o - OJ c o K- CO r - o j c o c o v - 0 1 1 m v o v o -

3

" m r* -

3

-CO c o m m c o m OJ m

fa

cOl (N O T" a m c o oj r - o j m m -3- vO -

3

* ^

1

0 -

1

1

1

m -

3

- 1 O- o j CO OJ o j .3- .3- c o c o m v - v o m c o m m m -3- v o c o - 3 - r m o j 0 1 oj 1 1 1 0 c o 0 m v- -3- <- <--

3

-c o c o c o m 0 v o -3-m O-l CN 0 a O - C ^ C O -

3

- T- C O -

3

- V O OJ -

3

- o r - 1 c o 1 1 1 v o o j 1 0 - c - m OJ v o CO m -

3

- OJ OJ C O r - r - O m c o 0 m o j c o v o 0 v o o j \ o j o j 0 1 m 1 1 m c o c o m r - 0 C- -

3

-00 & c o 0 m 0 m

fa

vO I CM O -

3

" CO v o -

3

- vO r i d v o

3

r m v o OJ r -

1

c-

1

1 i n m . O- OJ 00 OJ -3- <- m 00 c o o j 0 0 m c o 01 IN O CO m 0 -

3

- C ^ C O T - r -m 0 - 0 1 c o 1 1 i n c o 00 -

3

- V- t - V- .

3

-OJ m c o m m

-3

m m P

»4

m l r M 0 a

fa

j - | 0 0 1 2: i n m v o i n m c v - m o j m r -i n 0 i n 1 m 1 1 1 v o m CO OJ c o OJ m i n c o c o c o o j c o c o m c o m OJ CO r Ol I N t - O J m v v -m m r - 1 0 1 1 c o c o 0 -

3

- V- <- C- r - -

3

- -3-OJ 01 -

3

-OJ I N VO m O v O -

3

- m v o 0 v o m *— .3- c o m m 1 m 1 1 1 u n 3 CO OJ c o OJ 0 m m m- i n m m -3- i n m c o v o i n o j -

3

- oj m m oj m v o r - l o i 1

1

c o CN 0 -

3

- f * OJ r - r - -

3

-m -

3

" OJ -

3

-CN OJ CO m

4

-> f—I

₃

W d) f a so lut e i s ch ar ge uti on ion m i t n's S . O . ne mpensation der shi p d e r is on O . I . _tal tention ntr e t ent ion ch il dre n ita l d e r

►

3

g _ur c e : Scottish Home an d Hea lt h D e p t . (

19

8

5

)

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

Digitised

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

TABL E \2 . Distribution o f Result s of Pr oceedings Am on g Of fe n de rs 16 -2 0 - ii -M o o CO

4

-> rH § as t h e y have been rou nde d t o ne ar e s t w ho le nu mb er

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

1 3 -E N G L A N D A N D W A L -E S In E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s t h e ag e of c r i m i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y is 10 y e a r s . T h o s e b e t w e e n 10 a n d 16 y e a r s o l d w h o a r e a c c u s e d of an o f f e n c e a p p e a r at a j u v e n i l e c o u r t , b e f o r e m a g i s t r a t e s w h o h a v e b e e n c h o s e n as m e m b e r s of t h e j u v e n i l e p a n e l b e c a u s e t h e y a r e d e e m e d to be p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o t h i s w o r k . T h o s e a g e d at l e a s t 17, b u t u n d e r 21, w h o a r e c h a r g e d w i t h a c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e a p p e a r w i t h i n t h e s a m e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m as o t h e r o f f e n d e r s , i.e. if t h e c h a r g e c o n c e r n s a v e r y s e r i o u s m a t t e r t h e y w i l l be t r i e d at t h e c r o w n c o u r t b e f o r e a j u d g e a n d j ury, if it i n v o l v e s a m i n o r o r s u m m a r y o f f e n c e t h e y w i l l b e h e a r d b y m a g i s t r a t e s at a m a g i s t r a t e s ' c o u r t , b u t in m o s t c a s e s t h e c h o i c e of v e n u e w i l l b e m a d e b y t h e d e f e n d a n t . H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h d e f e n d a n t s a g e d 1 7 - 2 0 m a y b e t r i e d l i k e o t h e r a d u l t o f f e n d e r s , t h e r e are p a r t i c u l a r d i s p o s a l s f o r t h i s a g e g r o u p . T h e s e a r e d e s c r i b e d b e l o w . Of a ll t h o s e c a u t i o n e d for, o r f o u n d g u i l t y of, i n d i c t a b l e o f f e n c e s in E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s in 1983, 83 p e r c e n t w e r e m a l e a n d 17 p e r c e n t w e r e f e m a l e . F o r t h o s e a g e d 1 4 - 2 0 t h e p r o p o r t i o n s w e r e 85 p e r c e n t m a l e a n d 15 p e r c e n t f e m a l e . T h i s p a t t e r n h a s h e l d f o r t h e p a s t s i x y e a r s , a n d w a s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t in t h e p r e c e d i n g f o u r y e a r s (see T a b l e 13). G i r l s a n d y o u n g w o m e n c o n t i n u e t o c o n s t i t u t e o n l y a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of t h e y o u n g o f f e n d e r s w h o s e a c t i v i t i e s b e c o m e r e c o r d e d . A v e r y s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of the t o t a l f e m a l e p o p u l a t i o n b e c o m e s p a r t of t h e c r i m i n a l s t a t i s t i c s . D u r i n g t h e p a s t d e c a d e o n l y o n e p e r c e n t of y o u n g w o m e n in t h e a g e g r o u p 1 4 - 2 0 ( i n c l u s i v e ) h a v e b e e n c o n v i c t e d in c o u r t ; f o r y o u n g m e n in t h e s a m e age g r o u p t h e p r o p o r t i o n is c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r a t s e v e n p e r c e n t (T a b l e 14 ) . In 1 983 t he p e a k a g e of k n o w n o f f e n d i n g p e r 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s 15 y e a r s f o r m a l e s a n d 14 y e a r s f o r f e m a l e s . T h i s is t h e s a m e as in n e a r l y e v e r y y e a r f r o m 1 9 7 3 t o 1 983. F o r m a l e s a g e d 1 6-18 , in 1983, t h e r a t e of o f f e n d i n g w a s l o w e r t h a n t h e p e a k o f 15 b u t h i g h e r t h a n f o r o t h e r a ges, w h i l e f o r f e m a l e s t he r a t e s f or 13 a n d 15 w e r e a l i t t l e l o w e r t h a n t h e p e a k o f 14, w h i l e t h e r a t e s for 1 6 - 1 8 w e r e m u c h l ow e r . T h e f t a n d h a n d l i n g s t o l e n g o o d s w a s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t o f f e n c e for m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s d u r i n g t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s . H o w e v e r , t h e p r o p o r t i o n of f e m a l e s i n v o l v e d in t h i s o f f e n c e is c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o p o r t i o n o f m a l e s ( T a b l e 15). W h i l e t h e f t a n d h a n d l i n g s t o l e n g o o d s a c c o u n t s f o r j u s t u n d e r h a l f t h e o f f e n c e s by m a l e s , it a c c o u n t s f o r b e t w e e n t w o t h i r d s a n d t h r e e q u a r t e r s of t h e o f f e n c e s b y f e m a l e s . Y o u n g m e n a n d y o u n g w o m e n d i f f e r n o t o n l y in t h e n u m b e r s w h o b e c o m e k n o w n to t h e p o l i c e a n d t h e c o u r t s , b u t a l s o in t h e r e l a t i v e i n v o l v e m e n t s in d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f o f f e n c e s ( T a b l e 15). W i t h a c o n c e n t r a t i o n of o f f e n d e r s in t h e a r e a s of t h e f t , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f y o u n g w o m e n i n v o l v e d in o t h e r o f f e n c e s is c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y low. W h i l e n e a r l y o n e q u a r t e r of t h e k n o w n m a l e

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

- I*» - ■

TABLE |3 Persons Aged 1^-20 (inclusive) Found Guilty or Cautioned

for Indictable Crimes as a Percentage of that Age Group of Known Offenders

England and Wales

Year Total Males Females

1973

100 (1*+,778)

87

%

13

# 197*+

100

(

16

,

692

)

86

# i*+# 1975

100

(

17

,

053

) ' 86# i*+# 1976

100

(

16

,*+

89

) 86# i*+# 1977

100

(

17

,

201

) 85#

15

#

1978

100

(

17

,

085

)

85

#

15

#

1979

100

(

15

,*+

26

)

85

#

15

# v£ > 03 O

100

(16,992)

85

# 15'#

1981

100

(

17

,

060

)

85

#

15

# 1982

100

(l

7

,

6

*+

8

)

85

#

15

# 1983

100

(

17

,

097

)

85

#

15

#

TABLE Mjr Persons Aged 1*+-20 (inclusive) Found Guilty or Cautioned

for Indictable Offences, as a Percentage of that Age Group in the Population

England and Wales

Year Males Females i

1973

6# (

12

,

882

)

1

# (

1

,

896

)

197

*+ 7# (1*+,*+o6)

1

# (

2

,

286

)

1975

7# d*+,

650

) 1# (2,*+03)

1976

7%

(1*+,131+) 1# (2,355)

1977

7%

(l*+,6*+9) 1# (2,552)

1978

_7%

(1*+,5*+3) 1# (2,5*+2)

1979

₇

# (13,

0

V+) 1# (2,382)

1980

7%

(

1

*+,l+ltl+) 1# (2,5*+8)

1981

7# (1*+,52*+) 1# (2,536)

1982

75*! (1*+,933) 1# (2,715)

1983

7%

(1*+,*+76) T# (2,621)

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

15

-TABLE 15 Percentage of Offenders Aged 1*t-20 (inclusive) Found Guilty

of Indictable Offences by Type of Offence and Sex England and Wales

T y P e O f

0

f f e n e e "tiki

Year _Violence Sexual

Offences Burglary Robbery Theft Fraud CriminalDamage Other I (««kW

Males 1973

10

1

22

1

49

2

12

1

•i

100

127.8

197^

9

1

2k

1

50

2

12

1

100

143.2

1975

8

*

1

27

1

i*9

2

12

1

100

172

.

1

) 1976 9

1

2k

2

1(9

2

12

1

100

152.3

1977

9

1

2k

1

50

2

12

1

100

159.0

1978

9

1

2k

1

50

2

13

1

100

162.9

1979

12

1

22

1

₅₁

2

3

7

100

150.5

1980

12

1

₂₃

1

i*9

3

3

8

100

169.7

1981

12

1

2k

1

i(?

3

3

8

100

176.2

1982

12

1

2k

1

48

3

3

9

100

179.0

1983

12

1

2k

1

. 1(7

3

3

9

100

169.5

Females _•

1973

6

0.06

7

1 73

7

5

1

100

13.4

1971

+ É

0.06

7

1 73

7

5

1

100

.

16.5

1975

6 0.05 -

9

1 72 6

5

1

100

20

.

7

)

1976

7 0.02 8 1 72 7

5

1

100

19.0

1977

7 0.03 7 1 73 6

5

1 100 20.4

1978

6 0.03 7 1 ₇₃ 6 6

o.k

100

21.1

1979

8 .0.07 7 1 73 7 1 4

100

20.0

1980

8 _(1) 8 1 70 7 2 4 100 22.6

1981

8 _(1) 7 1 71 8 2 4 100 22.2

1982

9 _ ( D 7 1

71

7 1 5 100 . 22.2

1983

9 _(

1

) 7 1 69 8 2 4 100 20.8

Source: Criminal Statistics, England and Wales, 1973-1983

( 1) _{Figures not given in source}

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

1 6 o f f e n d e r s a r e i n v o l v e d in b u r g l a r y , t he f i g u r e f o r f e m a l e o f f e n d e r s is s e v e n p e r c e n t . W h i l e 12 p e r c e n t o f t h e m a l e s a r e i n v o l v e d in c r i m e s of v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t t h e p e r s o n , t h e f i g u r e f or f e m a l e s is n i n e p e r c e n t . H o w e v e r , w h i l e o n l y t h r e e p e r c e n t of t h e m a l e s a r e i n v o l v e d in c r i m e s of f r a u d a n d f o r g e r y , t h e f i g u r e f o r f e m a l e s is a h i g h e r e i g h t p e r c e n t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , e v e n in t h e a r e a s of p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y h i g h i n v o l v e m e n t , y o u n g w o m e n a r e m u c h f e w e r in n u m b e r t h a n y o u n g m e n . J u d i c i a l r e s p o n s e : s a n c t i o n s a v a i l a b l e in E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s : -1 0 - -1 4 C a u t i o n C o n d i t i o n a l d i s c h a r g e F i n e

Supervision order

Care order

A t t e n d a n c e c e n t r e o r d e r ( o n l y a f t e r 1 97 8 f o r g i r l s ) 1 4 - 1 7 C a u t i o n F i n e A b s o l u t e o r c o n d i t i o n a l d i s c h a r g e S u p e r v i s i o n o r d e r A t t e n d a n c e c e n t r e o r d e r ( o n l y a f t e r 1 9 7 8 f o r g i r l s ) D e t e n t i o n c e n t r e o r d e r (not a v a i l a b l e f o r g i r l s ) ( B o r s t a l t r a i n i n g ) / y o u t h c u s t o d y C a r e o r d e r C . S . O . (in s o m e a r e a s f r o m 16) 1 7 - 2 1 C a u t i o n F i n e A b s o l u t e or c o n d i t i o n a l d i s c h a r g e P r o b a t i o n o r d e r C . S . O . D e t e n t i o n c e n t r e (not a v a i l a b l e f o r y o u n g w o m e n ) Y o u t h c u s t o d y C a u t i o n i n g D u r i n g t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s t h e r e h a s b e e n an i n c r e a s e in t h e u s e of c a u t i o n i n g , a n d a d e c r e a s e in p r o s e c u t i o n , f o r y o u n g o f f e n d e r s . As T a b L e 16 s h o w s t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h o s e c a u t i o n e d is h i g h e s t a m o n g t h e y o u n g e r o f f e n d e r s , a n d h i g h e r f o r f e m a l e s t h a n f o r m a l e s in b o t h a ge g r o u p s . A c a u t i o n i n v o l v e s an o r a l r e p r i m a n d , w h i c h is u s u a l l y g i v e n b y a s e n i o r o f f i c e r at a p o l i c e s t a t i o n . C a u t i o n s are r e c o r d e d , a n d a r e g i v e n w i t h p r e v i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s at a n y f u t u r e c o u r t a p p e a r a n c e . T h e c r i t e r i a for a d m i n i s t e r i n g a c a u t i o n are: i) t h e r e is s u f f i c i e n t e v i d e n c e f o r a p r o s e c u t i o n ;

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

1 7

TABLE lb Offenders aged 1^-20 (inclusive) Cautioned for Indictable

Offences as a Percentage of Offenders Found Guilty or Cautioned by Sex and Age Group

England and Wales

Year

Percentage of Offenders Found Guilty or Cautioned

M a l e 3 F e ra a 1 e s Total 14-16

17-20

Total 14-16

17-20

1973

38 33 5

65

58

7

1974

38 39 4 64 58 6

1975

37 33 4 63 57 6

1976

35 32 3

61

55 6

1977

37

y*

3 63 58 5

1978

35

34

1 61 56 5

1979

38

35

3 64 59 5

1980

37

34

3 63 58 5

1981

38

35

3 65

60

5

1982

38

3 71 65 6

1983

46 42 4 75 68 7

Source: Criminal Statistics, England and Wales

1983

, Tables 5.5, 5.18.

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

- 1 8 ii) t h e o f f e n c e is a d m i t t e d a n d t h e o f f e n d e r c o n s e n t s t o b e i n g c a u t i o n e d ; iii) in t h e c a s e of a j u v e n i l e (i.e. u n d e r 17) t h e p a r e n t s o r g u a r d i a n a g r e e t o a c a u t i o n b e i n g a d m i n i s t e r e d . ( N A C R O 1 9 8 5 a ) . T h e f t , p a r t i c u l a r l y s h o p l i f t i n g , h a n d l i n g s t o l e n g o o d s , arid s e x u a l o f f e n c e s a r e t he o f f e n c e s m o s t l i k e l y t o be d e a l t w i t h by a c a u t i o n (Mott, 1 983). M o s t j u v e n i l e s c a u t i o n e d a r e f i r s t o f f e n d e r s ; r e c i d i v i s t s a r e m u c h l e s s l i k e l y to b e c a u t i o n e d (Mott, 1 9 8 3 ; L a y c o c k a n d T a r l i n g , 1 98 40. C a u t i o n i n g m a y b e s e e n as a r e s p o n s e t o an e x p r e s s e d G o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y of m i n i m a l i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d d i v e r s i o n of j u v e n i l e s f r o m t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m ( H o m e O f f i c e , 1980; H o m e O f f i c e , 1 9 8 4 ) . T h i s is a r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of e x a c e r b a t i n g d e l i n q u e n c y b y a c o u r t a p p e a r a n c e ( F a r r i n g t o n , 1977; F a r r i n g t o n et al, 1 9 7 8 ) . P o l i c e c a u t i o n i n g h a s b e e n a c k n o w l e d g e d a s a m e a n s o f d e l a y i n g , a n d p o s s i b l y p r e v e n t i n g , t h e j u v e n i l e o f f e n d e r ' s e n t r y i n t o t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m ( T h o r p e a n d F i n c h , 1983; M o t t , 1983; H o m e O f f i c e , 1 98 4 ) . H o w e v e r , t w o s o u r c e s o f c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of c a u t i o n s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d b y N A C R O ( N A C R O 1985 a ) . T h e f i r s t i n v o l v e s t h e l a c k of c o n s i s t e n c y b e t w e e n p o l i c e f o r c e s , a n d a l a c k of p o l i c e c o n s e n s u s on t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e u s e o f a c a u t i o n . It h as b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t f a c t o r s i r r e l e v a n t to

t h e o f f e n c e (e.g. area, e t h n i c g r oup, d e g r e e o f p a r e n t a l c o n t r o l )

m a y i n f l u e n c e t h e d e c i s i o n t o c a u t i o n ( L a n d a u , 1981; L a n d a u a n d N a t h a n , 1983). T h e s e c o n d s o u r c e of c o n c e r n is r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t an i n c r e a s e in o f f i c i a l ( and r e c o r d e d ) c a u t i o n i n g m a y b e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o a d e c r e a s e in u n o f f i c i a l w a y s of d e a l i n g w i t h m i n o r o r f i r s t o f f e n c e s . O f f i c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e v a l u e of c a u t i o n i n g m a y h a v e l e d t o its u s e in s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e less f o r m a l ( a nd u n r e c o r d e d ) w a r n i n g s h a d f o r m e r l y b e e n u s e d ( D i t c h f i e l d , 1976; F a r r i n g t o n a n d B e n n e t t , 1 9 8 1 ) . T h e r e is a d a n g e r t h a t a m e a n s of k e e p i n g j u v e n i l e s o u t of the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m c o u l d be t h e r o u t e of e n t r y for s o m e w h o , w i t h c o n s i s t e n t c a u t i o n i n g c r i t e r i a , m i g h t h a v e b e e n e x c l u d e d . T h e h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f f e m a l e o f f e n d e r s w h o r e c e i v e a c a u t i o n h a s l e d s o m e w r i t e r s t o a r g u e t h a t t h i s is a n e x a m p l e of l e n i e n c y or c h i v a l r y . H o w e v e r , in a s t u d y o f t h e c a u t i o n i n g of j u v e n i l e s in L o n d o n , L a n d a u a n d N a t h a n (1 983) f o u n d t h a t it w a s t h e o f f e n c e a n d t h e c r i m i n a l r e c o r d , n o t t h e s e x of t h e o f f e n d e r , w h i c h i n f l u e n c e d t h e d e c i s i o n n o t t o p r o s e c u t e . G i r l s w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to b e c a u t i o n e d t h a n b o ys , n o t b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s e x b u t b e c a u s e of t h e n a t u r e of t h e i r c r i m i n a l i n v o l v e m e n t s . S e n t e n c e s f o r O f f e n d e r s A g e d 13 to 20 D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1 9 7 3 - 8 3 t h e r e w e r e c h a n g e s in t h e r a n g e of s e n t e n c e s a v a i l a b l e f or j u v e n i l e s ( 1 0 -1 6 ) a n d y o u n g o f f e n d e r s ( 17-21) .

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

- 1 9 In 1 973 c o m m u n i t y s e r v i c e o r d e r s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d , for o f f e n d e r s a g e 3

T7

a n d o v e r , Tn s i x a r e a s ; b y 1 9 7 8 t h e i r u s e w a s e x t e n d e d to a l l a r e a s . T h e n u m b e r of at t e n d a n c e c e n t r e s , f o r t h o s e u n d e r 21, w a s i n c r e a s e d f r o m 62 in 1 9 7 7 t o 122 Tn T983; i n c l u d i n g , f r o m 1978, s e v e n c e n t r e s f o r y o u n g w o m e n . P r i o r t o 1 9 7 8 t h i s d i s p o s a l w a s n ot a v a i l a b l e f or y o u n g w o m e n . O n 2 4 t h May, 1983, s e c t i o n s 1 - 10 o f t h e C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e A c t a b o l i s h e d b o r s t a l t r a i n i n g a n d i m p r i s o n m e n t f o r o f f e n d e r s u n d e r 21, a n d r e p l a c e d t h e m w i t h a n e w d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c e of y o u t h c u s t o d y f or o f f e n d e r s a g e d 15 a n d u n d e r 21. T h e u s u a l s e n t e n c e is f or f o u r m o n t h s , a n d t h e r e is a m a x i m u m o f 12 m o n t h s for o f f e n d e r s u n d e r 17. T h e s c o p e of d e t e n t i o n c e n t r e o r d e r s for m a l e s w a s i n c r e a s e d : t h e u s u a l s e n t e n c e is n o w b e t w e e n 21 d a y s a n d f o ur m o n t h s , i n s t e a d of t h r e e t o s i x m o n t h s as b e f o r e ( H o m e O f f i c e , 1 984). T h e r e a re no d e t e n t i o n c e n t r e s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y n o d e t e n t i o n c e n t r e o r d e r s , f o r y o u n g w o m e n . R e l e a s e f r o m d e t e n t i o n c e n t r e a n d r e l e a s e f r o m c u s t o d y a r e f o l l o w e d b y a p e r i o d of s u p e r v i s i o n b y a p r o b a t i o n o f f i c e r or s o c i a l w o r k e r . T h e A c t e m p o w e r e d c o u r t s t o a t t a c h c o m p u l s o r y c o n d i t i o n s to s u p e r v i s i o n a n d c a r e o r d e r s . C o n d i t i o n s t h a t m a y b e a t t a c h e d t o a s u p e r v i s i o n o r d e r , s u b j e c t t o a m a x i m u m o f 90 d ays, a r e t h a t t h e j u v e n i l e l i v e s in a s p e c i f i e d p l a c e for a s p e c i f i e d t ime, t h a t h e / s h e r e p o r t s t o t h e s u p e r v i s o r o n s p e c i f i e d d a y s , t h a t h e / s h e p a r t i c i p a t e s in s t i p u l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s . T h e r e m a y a l s o b e a n i g h t r e s t r i c t i o n of up t o 30 d a y s . P r i o r t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e A c t, a c o n d i t i o n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e t r e a t m e n t (IT) c o u l d b e a t t a c h e d b y t h e c o u r t t o a s u p e r v i s i o n o r d e r , b u t c o u l d o n l y be e n f o r c e d at t h e d i s c r e t i o n of th e p r o b a t i o n o f f i c e r o r s o c i a l w o r k e r s u p e r v i s i n g t h e c a s e . A c h a r g e a n d c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n (the ' r e s i d e n t i a l c a r e o r d e r ' ) m a y b e a t t a c h e d by t h e c o u r t to an e x i s t i n g c a r e o r d e r ; t h i s r e q u i r e s t h e l o c a l a u t h o r i t y t o r e m o v e f r o m h o m e a y o u n g p e r s o n u n d e r a c a r e o r d e r , m a d e as t h e r e s u l t of an o f f e n c e , w h o c o m m i t s a n o t h e r o f f e n c e . T h e A c t e x t e n d e d c o m m u n i t y s e r v i c e o r d e r s t o 16 y e a r s o l ds . T h i s w a s to b e i n t r o d u c e d a r e a b y area, a n d b y t h e e n d o f 1983 it h a d b e e n d o n e in 35 of t h e 50 p r o b a t i o n a r e a s . T h e A c t a l s o m a d e t h e p a r e n t o r g u a r d i a n of a j u v e n i l e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p a y m e n t of f i n e s , u n l e s s t h i s w o u l d b e u n r e a s o n a b l e g i v e n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e c a s e . S e n t e n c e s 1 9 7 3 - 8 3 M a l e s 1 4 - 1 6 ( i n c l u s i v e ) ( T a b l e 17) O v e r 5 4 , 0 0 0 m a l e s in t h i s ag e g r o u p w e r e s e n t e n c e d for i n d i c t a b l e o f f e n c e s ; t h i s is t h e l o w e s t n u m b e r s i n c e 1974. T h r o u g h o u t t h e d e c a d e t h e f i n e r e m a i n e d t h e s e n t e n c e m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d for t h i s g r o u p , b u t its p r o p o r t i o n a t e u s e h a s f a l l e n s i n c e 1 979.

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.

T A B L E n P e r c e n ta g e o f P e rs o n s A g e d a n d U n d e r 1 ? S e n te n c t-d fo r I n d ic ta b le O ff e n c e s W ho R e c e iv e d V a ri o u s S e n te n c e s b y S e x a n d T y p e o f S e n te n c e o r O rd e r TS o d 0) io CO d o (0

u

(U

ft

(0 <D T3 d § O t h e r ­ w is e D e a lt w it h -' r - '""l r - ^ l T - t - T - r - r - f V j r *1 T r i ^ i r " l ^ i ^ r ^ t r -CJ >> .d -d -P o d -p o to >h d o • * * # * # * * * # < N J _{• « « ...} -I j B o r s t a l j T r a in in g j K\ K M A K\ W r - T - r - r - r - r - r - t - T - T - r - 1 C a r e O r d e r A V O VO fA fA OJ r - ov O O ' CO O-VOVOVO LA [ A t t e n d a n c e D e t e n t io n C e n t r e j C e n t r e O r d e r j O r d e r i vo vo r o c o c o ^ c m j n o o O ' CO O ' O ' O ' O r K > 4 -U ) r - t- T- r * r - r t - • • • • • » r - J - iA VO A-<i> d •H Pm O O O N C O O N O A C A C V Jt- O' J - - Ï tA fA -± fA fA fA fA (\J J-V O fA IA A O ON VO (\l fA r - fA fA fA fA K\ J - fA fA fA fA fA S u p e r ­ v is io n O r d e r A A VO IA I A - ^ VO VO A VO vo r - T - r - r - T - r - T - r - r - ^ - r - A-VO VO fA fA CVj lA IT\ lA fA r -c\j Al cvJ cvj t\j c\j c\j a j c\J c\J c\j I --- ----A b s o lu t e o r C o n d it io n a l D is c h a r g e CO O N O r r O D -c o O ' O c - c V- f\J < \ J ( \ J f \ J r - r - T - f \ J C \ i V O A - O O O O A-OO r - rA lA C\J CM l A f A f A f A A J C M f A f A fA i ’ ­ l l g - o H o S 3 S g a s i s ® 8 I “ • o V , w 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 r r r - r r r r r r r r r - r - O (M -rf f\J r - O ' O KV-3-VO fA OJ O ' J - l/\vO lA vO vO VO lA vO VO lA lA 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 . f A A r j - c O fA r e o J - O r CAVO A - A- A-CO A - A - A- A - VO S e x a n d Y e a r W A 4 - tA v O t 'C O O \ 0 r - (\J IA <U N N 1 N N N M N C O O O C O C O H O ' O ' O ' O 'O 'O ' O ' O ' O ' O 'O ' ttJ r~ * - v - r~ r~ r - S | F e m a le s ! f A J - LA VO A c O C A O r - O J fA A A A A A A A C O C O C O CO O ' Ov ON O ' O ' On O ' On O ' ON ON r - r * v~ r~ x~ r~ x~ r~

©

The

Author(s).

European

University

Institute.

version

produced

by

the

EUI

Library

in

2020.

Available

Open

Access

on

Cadmus,

European

University

Institute

Research

Repository.