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Articolo sulla teoria di stringa

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(1)

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` = BCB [^a_b EN B@D; EC=@?E = E@?E = EE@<CK WGC= I;@?<N EGGCQ =@ A?B=@@ :C<B@@ @DB>< BO@ W=@ X<=C=  ? c<@C ;<EdN M@?D e BO@ @??< cA?B ;>dN  =@?BC<< = W=@ X<=C= ?<@??N = @@CG@ :;D <@ = I;@@ ?:@CE@<E@<@ = GG BB@ ??M K \ ? ; ?@C@ = CG BO@ = CQ  I;@?< B>Q@fg >CC@ @>=@QC@ I; ? =;@NC::C@?@<<>@  C@<D = B<@GC@ :;D E:@K h :CE E<> = ?==?Q@ @D BO@ ? B?=@C BO@  W=@ X<=C= MM ; ;E@C = :CE@<C M@C R;  >@<S <C:: @@>< :@C ; <@C =E@<@K X M= M@@N I;@?<  @D ; ?==?Q@ :;CE@<@ @?<@<BN BE@ @D @>=@Q< = :CM@E =@ I;<QQQ@ =@ BCB @@<<CBH <;<<@ @ BCBO@ =@@ :C<B@@ @@E@<C BO@ B?F BE ? << E;<:@ = ;Z;<D =E@<@K ?D e @ W=@ X<=C=  BCB =@Z@@<<C@ @ I;@ =@ :C<@ ? =;@ :CE@<C M@C BE:@<E@<@ =:@=@<g EF GC= BD Z@@<<C@ @  :C<@ O ?:@CE@<E@<@  ?<@?? BCB R?@G   :C<@S  >@ = ; :C<@ ?; =@B E RiSK B=@Qj kZ :??M@lN E E< A?B <@CB :C@@C?B :@?C@ BO@ I;@?< ? ; =BQ@ ?:@CE@<@ =@ << BO@ :CMME@<@ @??<@ ; C@Q@ :C= C  I;CJ?N BO@ O <@CQ C< @ BE:G  :C<@N

mnoppq rstuq voppo wqxytuoppo zqsso ov o{ox|to st zts}xq{~ t{ o€ uo ‚o pƒo{ox|tq uo qu„}tsyq }{ opoyyx~{o

s~yy~w~sy~ qppq vt…oxo{†q vt w~yo{†tqpovt ‡ ˆ~py

‰

pq zouuq{tuq „}q{ytsytuq ut t{so|{q uo q |xq{vt o{ox|to Š u~xxtsw~{v~{~ wtuu~po vtsyq{†o ‹€ sou~{v~ pq

xopq†t~{o Š Œ‹  ‡Ž o z

‘

pq wxtzq€ t{u~{’ossqyq xq|t~{o ‚o uo so vqˆˆox~ {~{ uƒ‚o {}ppq qpvtpq‚ vop “~vopp~ syq{vqxv€ qt rstut voppo

wqxytuoppo y~uuq uqz”tqxzosytoxo•••

–

wox }sqxo }{q ’xqso uqxq q nq{v~ —~ox~€ pq wx~”q”tptyq‚vt zts}xqxopq uqxtuq vop wx~y~{o o yx~ˆqxpq osqyyq˜

zo{yo}|}qpoq „}oppq voppƒopoyyx~{oo‚q{qp~|qqppqwx~”q”tptyq‚uost su~wxq }{{}~ˆ~ ˆtppq||t~t{n}~ˆq ™opq{vq

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W=@ X<=C= R>@ = :CGC SK 9 ; :;< = >?< <@CB @??<@ : ; E<> = ?==?Q@ BC :;D GC>@H  E@BBB I;<?<B @  C@<><D G@@C@N BO@ =@?BC>@  CQ = GC><DN? C C F BE:<MK VG;GG =@ <@C = BE:NBO@ =@?BC>@ B ?;BB@?? E@BBB I;<?<B @ C@<><D ?:@B@N? ?B<C B =B<D= B@C@Q <@C R ::CC@ = c=>@CG@Q@dN B@D A<  @EMS I;= <@< = E@<<@C@ ?@E@  C@<><D '%'' @  E@BBB I;<?<BK <<;@E@<@  BE;<D=@ A?B <@CB =@@ :C<B@@ @DGC?? E= =>?  =;@ E: GC;::K V :CENI;@ =@ @E@GN<@=@  =C@ EGGC E:C<Q G @?:@CE@<  <<  = ; :C??E ;<;C R= BE @<C [^F[ S @ @ =BQ BO@ < @?:@CE@< =  ?@E MC  =C@N BE@  I;<QQQ@ =@ BCBK V ?@B= GC;::N I;@ =@G ?<CGO?<N:@? >@B@ BO@ = MM E :CE = <;<< C?>@C@  :C M @E =@ <@CN :CE ;G I;@ =@ I;<QQQ@ =@ GC><DK  I;@?< ?@B= <: = <<@GGE@< @D =@=B<  :CGC YK  36 726-3/ / 688/1462 h GC@=@<@ = =E@<@ E:C<Q @ W=@ X<=C= @D  B?==@<< c?EE@<C

= G;G@dK V A?BN  :C c?EE@<Cd O ; ?GAB< ; :D :;D ?<C<< @ :C@B? BO@

@ G;GG BE;@H '(  ' ' ' # ' '#!%!  $'%!'% %( !%! %%(  !((! % (!  !  ( $!!%  #' # ' ' ($!!% !%! % '(  '' ' % '(!%'" ?D e :@C ; ?B@Q< BO@ B=;B@ ; @?:@CE@<  ; MC<CN   @??; =@C@Q BO@  MC<C ? C@<< >@C? >@?< :;<<?< BO@ >@C? C=H  C?;<< =@Z@?:@CE@< @D =@<BK ??E G@@CQQC@ I;@?< ??@C>Q@ =B@= BO@  ??<@E = C@CE@< CG@ R>@?<S @ I;@ C;<< R C=S ? @I;>@<N @ B@D c@ @GG =@ A?B ? >C< ?<<  ?EE@<C =@ GC;:: =@@ C<Q <<C  ; =< ??@dK V :CB: = C@<><D G@@C@N BO@ =@?BC>@  CQ = GC><DN  C@CE@<  ?EE@<C@ = I;@?< <:N BO@ ? =@<<@ ?EE@<C@ =@ ?:QF<@E:N ::;< :@CBO@D G?B ?; :;< =@Z;>@C?  P =E@?  B; >>EK  ?EE@<C = G;G@ @D; <: =>@C? = ?EE@<CN I;< G?B ?;GC== M@C<D <@C = ; :C<B@N B@D ?;@ BC<<@C?<BO@ BO@ @ =@A?B @ :C:C@<D C?:@<< @ <@CQ =E@<K  = @?@E:  @;<C R S @ Z@@<<C@ R S ONC?:@<< @ <@CF Q =@MN ; BCB =>@C?N =@<< = ??:H  @;<C O BCB =@M@ _  @ Z@@<<C@ 

pq xopqytˆtyq‚ swoutqpo yxqyyq stsyozt vt xt’oxtzo{y~ t{ z~y~ xopqytˆ~ }{t’~xzo€ ut~o‚ u~{ ˆop~utyq‚ xopqytˆq

u~syq{yo• œq xopqytˆtyq‚ |o{oxqpo yxqyyq t{ˆouo stsyozt t{ z~y~ xopqytˆ~ „}qp}{„}o€ q{uo quuopoxqy~• tp „}qvx~

(3)

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cM ?@ = GG?d BO@ ? ?:@C :?? @??@C@ =@<AB< @G @?:@CE@< = ; :C??E ;<;CK V G@@C@N @ Z??: =@M@ @ @D ; @?@E:N = @@CG@ @@><@ BCC?:= GC= = ;ABQ@ EGGC @ ?EE@<C@ :;D G@@CK ?D e = @?@E: @@<<CB<D @ EG@<?EN BO@ >@@C ;AB< @Z@@<<CEG@<?E <CE<@ @ @I;Q = W@N ?  C >< =@?BC<< ?@E@ @ <@CQ =@ M  @ <@C =@@ <@CQ @@<<C=@ M N B;? @ W=@ X<=C=K EE@< <<;@@??<@ :@CD;?@:CQ@@<<CI;CJ?NBO@ O BCB C<@ @ I;= <@CQ C<N @  @:<N BO@  @ OK  EGGC :C<@ =@ A?B =@@ :C<B@@ @D BE;I;@ B>< BO@ = <@ @@CG@ @ CQ@ ? ;ABO @ @ :C<B@@ ? CGQQ  ; ;B cE;<:@<<d RBO@ :<C@EE BOEC@ c@:<I;CJdSN <C?CE=? C C ?<< ; =< ?EE@<CN EE@< G<K 9 I;  BB@<< = % #!%']] (((' ' $!' !%! %$'(!%  %%# $! $!%'%(' (((' ' (#'' !%! (( '  %%# ( #' $!%'%(' 2 /-462 ./+ 11 -kZ :??M@ :C<C@  :CB: = ;ABQ@ @ ?;@ @?<C@E@ B?@G;@Q@j kZ :??M@

B@D =@<@CEC@ cd <@C CBO@=@= BO@ ? C@QQ<  E??E GC= I;@?< BC<@CN

:@C B?D e =C@N @?<@<Bj  ?:@CQ @DN <<N BO@ I;@?< @C @??<N B@D BO@ @??< ; @C =@ ;<<  GC= = =@?BC>@C@  C@<D E<@C@  <;<<@ @ ?B@ = @@CGK L;@?< ?:@CQ ON E@  :C<@N ; =E@< E@<=GB @ BB@<< = c<@C @BB@d 

„}t o {op so|}ty~ wox ”qsso o{ox|to t{yo{v~ po o{ox|to r{~ qv ~||t swoxtzq{yqpzo{yo quuosst”tpt€ t{’oxt~xt

q utxuq ‡Ž o•œo qpyoo{ox|to s~{~ t{ˆouopo o{ox|tor{~xq t{oswp~xqyo€vtutqz~ vq ‡Ž o t{ s}

mmst w~yxo””o ossoxo q{u~xq wt}‚ qz”t†t~st o vtxo ’~x†o o wqxytuoppo s~{~ zq{t’osyq†t~{o vt }{ }{tu~ {yo

’~{vqzo{yqpo• o t~ sqwwtq wox~‚{oss}{~ q wo{sqy~ q w~xyqxo r{~ t{ ’~{v~ „}osy~ w}{y~ vt ˆtsyq wt}yy~sy~

(4)

; M@ :C@B? E@BB?E E<@E<BN? C@?B@N :C@? ; <@C = < @@CG _ N  C=;C  ; <@C =>@C?  = EM< :;D C=<<N BO@ =@?BC>@ @E@ = @@CG :;D M??N E BO@ C?;< B?=@C@>E@<@ ?@E:AB< C?:@<<  <@C CGC @E=  GC= = M@C<D @??@Q @ B@= @E@CG@C@ ? I;@ <<  =@?BCQ@ =@ A?B = M?? @@CGK O :C = @C =@ ;<< @D I;=N BE@ ? >@=@N C=;Q?< A @ @?<C@E@ B?@G;@Q@N @ :@? BO@ <;<<@ @ <@C@ @??<@<N BO@ =@?BC>  A?B  ; <@C> :;D  E@ E: = @@CG@N ?  C@<D E< :C<BC =@ @C =@ ;<<K h <@<<>  <@ =C@Q@ O :C<< @G ;<E  ; :C<@ =@ BE;<D =@ A?B <@CB =@@

:C<B@@  =?<@C@??C? I;? <@CE@<@ =@C?;<<?:@CE@<N:@CB@CBC@ I;@?< ?:@B@

= cXBC Cd =@ A?B <@CBNB G ?<C;E@< E<@E<B =@ <@C = ?<CGK E@ GD BB@<N C?;< E: ??M @ =@?BC>@C@ ?@E@  C@<><DG@@C@ @  E@BBF B I;<?<B @Z E M< =@ <@C =@ BE:K V :C M @E @D BO@ B ? ?:@<< BO@ I;@?< BGC;@Q ? E@?< ?:@CE@<E@<@ @ =?<Q@  B; G @@<< I;<?<B =>@< E:C<<:@C GC><DK 9<  =@M@QQ =@ CQ =GC><DC?:@<< @ <C@ CQ@ =F E@<N< =?<Q@ ? BC@=ME@<@ :BB@ @ ? A??<@ = B?<<@ = GC><Q@ ;>@C?@ = @??@C@ =@ZC=@ =@ ;GO@QQ = BJH [^a E@<C B@D ; EC=@?E

= EC=@?E = EC=@?E = E@?E = EE@<C i @C =C@ ; =@?BCQ@ ;AB< =@@ P CQ@ @D ?<< @B@??C CBCC@C@  ; G;GG ;> @ =E@<E@<@ =>@C? = I;@ =@ <@C =@ BE:H I;@ =@ <@C = ?<CGK L;@?<Z;<E @D =@?BC<<  <@CF E=GG@<< E=E@?=E@<N@ ?<CGO@ ::;<NB =E@?@ <:B :C  ;GO@QQ = BJ``K 9 :;< = >?< <;<>N :??E :@?C@ BO@  =E@?@ =@ZGG@<< ;=E@?@ ?<CG =@A?B ; ?C< = c=?<Q EEd <C@  I;@  ? :;D =C@K kZ E:C<<@ <C@ BO@N =<  >C@ ?<CEBE@<@ :BB =@ B?<<@ = BJN I;@?< ?:@B@ = cGC;?<Dd =@ ?:QF<@E: @D =@ <;<< >>@ C<M @  ?  ?B = =?<Q@ C=C@ R[ ESN E BO@  ?B <EB R[^ a_ ES @ @ :;D :BB@ =?<Q@ A = GG ??@C><@ R[^ a_b ESK ZEMQ? <@<<> = ;ABQ@ =@ <@C = ?<CG ? @D A = GG ?B<C< B >C@ =B<D BO@ ?  E E= = >@=@C@ CB=;BM  =;@ GC?? AK 9 ; <N ? @D << B:< BO@  <@C  >@@ ;>BE@<@ =@<@CE< = ?@EF :B@ CBO@?< = =@?BC>@C@ @ CQ@ =E@<  ; E@C ;AB< @ E<@E<BE@<@ B@C@<@H =<< @??< A<@ <@C@ff BO@ ?==?  < C@I;?< i @C<CN  ?:@CQ = =?BCEC@ C @ A<@ <@C@ ?= I;@ BO@ O  W=@ X<=C= BE@ <@C @@<<>  M??@ @@CG@N @D :;C@ AC ;CG< = C<@ @ @CE =B<D E<@E<BO@ = <C=;Q@ = G;GG =@@ <@C = ?<CG  I;@ =@ <@C = BE:K W  <@C = ?<CG ? ?B<C B :C M @E R BC :;D GC>@  E :C@C@S =  ‰‰

wox u~{’x~{y~€ {oppq vosuxt†t~{o uo pq yo~xtq vot uqzwt ’q vt }{q wqxytuoppq opozo{yqxo u~zo }{ opoyyx~{o

qv osozwt~€{~{ qwwqxo {oss}{q suqpq’~{vqzo{yqpot{yxt{souq tp uqzw~ ‚o}{q ’}{†t~{o zqyozqytuq vor{tyq t{

~|{t w}{y~ vopp~ swq†t~ opq vtsyq{†q ’xq v}o w}{yt w}~‚ ossoxoqx”tyxqxtqzo{yowtuu~pq

‘‘

|pt syxt{|tsyt u~{yt{}q{~ wox~‚ q swoxqxo uo „}osyo t{r{tyo yo~xto stq{~ t{ xoqpyq‚ vtˆoxso zq{t’osyq†t~{t

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GC=@QQ RiS C  ;GO@QQ = BJN  I;@ G @@<< =@ <@C = ?<CG =>@< ??@C>MN @  EE =?<Q CGG;< @@ ??@C>Q ?:@CE@<K @C BE@  >@= N ; >@CAB =C@<<  MC<C <<C>@C?  ?<C;E@< AC ;<QQ< @ A?B =@@ :C<B@@N @ B@D <CE<@ G BB@@C<CN  ?CD E :??M@K kZ =<< E< :CMM@

BO@  E<@ ?BF:<B >@G CGG;< E< :CE =@ E<@ <@BGBH BO ::C>@CD 

:CG@<< = ; BB@@C<C@ = :C<B@@ GC=@ I;<  @CC @ BO@ B?;E <;<<  :<@Q = B;  @CC =?:@j k??<N C?@N <C@ :??M<D RB ?EGj M;BO @CjSN E ? <C<<N  EE@<N ? = :<@? ?:@B;<>@ ?; I;@ BO@ :<C@MM@C @??@C@ G @?:@CE@< = ; < ;<;CK

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