Emotional, psychophysiological and behavioral responses elicited by the exposition to cyberbullying situations: Two experimental studies

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w w w . e l s e v i e r . e s / p s e d

Psicología

Educativa

Emotional,

psychophysiological

and

behavioral

responses

elicited

by

the

exposition

to

cyberbullying

situations:

Two

experimental

studies

Simona

C.S.

Caravita

a,∗

_,

_Barbara

_Colombo

b,c

_,

_Sara

_Stefanelli

b

_,

_Roberta

_Zigliani

b

a_C.R.I.d.e.e,_Catholic_University_of_the_Sacred_Heart,_Italy b_Catholic_University_of_the_Sacred_Heart,_Italy c_Champlain_College,_USA

a

r

t

i

c

l

e

i

n

f

o

Articlehistory: Received17July2015 Accepted22February2016 Availableonline7April2016 Keywords: Cyberbullying Bullying Emotion Physiologicalreaction Experimentalstudy

a

b

s

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c

t

Twoexperimentalstudiesinvestigatedwhethertheexposuretocyberbullyingsituationsproduces inbulliedyouth,andinyoungpeopleingeneral,higherlevelsofstress,negativeemotions,and atten-tionlevels,incomparisontootherpeerinteractions,includingbullying.Inbothstudies,participants’ physiologicalactivation(Study1and2)andbehavioraldata(Study2)wererecordedwhilewatchingfour 1-minutevideosrepresentingcyberbullying,face-to-facebullying,prosocial,andneutralinteractions. Self-reportquestionnairesassessedparticipants’emotionalresponsestothevideos,andvictimization. Sixty-oneadolescents(65.7%girls)participatedinStudy1;35youngadults(60%girls)participatedin Study2.Resultsindicatethatcyberbullyingcauseshigherstressandnegativeemotionsthanprosocial andneutralpeerinteractions,butnotthanbullying.Cyberbullyingalsoelicitedhigherlevelsofstress andnegativeemotionsinvictimsthannon-victims,butonlyforadolescents.

Las

respuestas

emocionales,

psicoﬁsiológicas

y

comportamentales

producidas

ante

la

exposición

a

situaciones

de

cyberbullying:

dos

estudios

experimentales

Palabrasclave: Cyberbullying Bullying Emoción Reacciónﬁsiológica Estudioexperimental

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Mediantedosestudiosexperimentalesseinvestigasilaexposiciónasituacionesdecyberbullying pro-duceenlosjóvenesacosadosyenlosjóvenesengeneralmayorniveldeestrés,deemocionesnegativas ydeatencióncomparadosconotrasinteraccionesentrecompa ñeros,incluyendoelbullying.Enambos estudiosseregistrólaactivaciónpsicofisiológicadelosparticipantes(estudios1y2)yserecogieron datosdecomportamiento(estudio2)mientrasseveían4vídeosde1minutodeduraciónquecontenían cyberbullying,bullyingcaraacaraeinteraccionesprosocialesyneutras.Mediantecuestionariosde autoin-formeseevaluaronlasrespuestasemocionalesdelosparticipantesalosvídeosasícomolavictimización. Sesentayunadolescentes(el65.7%chicas)participaronenelestudio1y35adultosjóvenes(el60%chicas) enelestudio2.Losresultadosindicanqueelcyberbullyingproducemayorestrésyemocionesnegativas quelasinteraccionesprosocialesyneutrasentrecompa ñeros,peronoqueelbullying.Elcyberbullying tambiénprodujomayorniveldeestrésyemocionesnegativasenvíctimasqueenlaspersonasquenolo eran,aunquesoloparalosadolescentes.

∗ Correspondingauthor.C.R.I.d.e.e.UniversitàCattolicadelSacroCuore.L.go Gemelli1.20123Milano,Italia.

E-mailaddress:simona.caravita@unicatt.it(S.C.S.Caravita).

The use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) isnowadaysadaily experiencefor adultsandadolescents (Antonietti,Colombo,&Lozotsev,2008).Suchtechnologiesallow to improve work and learning performances (e.g., Colombo, Antonietti, Sala, & Caravita, 2013), and to favor contacts and socializationamongpeople.However,thiswidespreaduseofICTis http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pse.2016.02.003

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alsolinkedtoahigherexposuretoviolentandaggressiveacts,such ascyberbullying. Cyberbullyingis anyharmingbehaviorthat is performedthroughelectronicordigitalmedia(Patchin&Hinduja, 2006).Becauseofthespeciﬁcfeaturesofcyber-aggression,in par-ticularthepossibleanonymityoftheaggressorandthedifﬁculty orimpossibilityfor thevictimstoescape theattackswhich are perpetrated by electronicdevices, cyberbullying hasbeen sug-gestedtocausehighstress,possiblyevenhigherthantraditional bullying,whichstopsoutofschool(Smithetal.,2008).Thestress and thenegativeemotional responses tocyberbullyingmaybe highnotonlyforthebulliedyouth,butalsoforthewitnesseswho canidentifywiththevictim andperceivethattheycanbecome thenextvictim, withsmallpossibilitiestoavoid ortostopthe cyberattacks.Inlinewiththisbackground,thisresearchproject is aimed at exploring whether the exposure to cyberbullying episodescauseshigherlevelsofdistressandemotionalreactions, incomparisontotheexposuretoothertypesofpeerinteractions, includingbullying,toyouthwho witnessand tothevictims of bullying,bymeansoftwoexperimentalstudies.

BullyingandCyberbullying

Bullyingconsistsofintentionalandrepeatedaggressive beha-viors against peers, characterized by an imbalance of power betweentheaggressor(s)andthevictim(s)(Olweus,1991).The imbalanceinthepowerinfavorofthebullyitiswhatmostly dis-tinguishesbullying,becausethevictimcannotcontrastadequately thebully’sattacks(Smith&Sharp,1994).Bullyingcanbe perpe-tratedbymeansofdifferentformsofaggressivebehavior:direct aggression,physicalorverbal,orindirectandrelational.

With the diffusion of the ICT, a new form of bullying and harassment,realizedbymeansofelectronicdevices,emerged,i.e., cyberbullying.Incyberbullyingtheaggressioncanbeperformed bytextmessage,email,phonecall,picture/videoclip,anduseof socialnetworktools.Likewise,inthetraditionalbullying,attacks can be direct, suchas sending offensive messages, or indirect, suchasspreadingembarrassingvideosorpicturesininternet.As intraditionalbullying,theaggressorsintentionallyharmthe vic-timwithrepeatedactions.Furthermore,thepossibilityallowed byICTsofactingcyber-aggressioneasilyandanonymously,often withthesupportofotherweb-users,recreatestheimbalanceof powerbetweentheaggressor(s)andthevictim(s).Cyberbullying alsopresentsspeciﬁcfeatures (Nocentiniet al.,2010)thatmay maketheattacksevenmoreharmfulforthevictimsincomparison totraditionalbullying.Cyberbullyingenduresovertime,because offensive content posted in the web cannot be erased easily, andkidshavefewerpossibilities toescapefromtheaggression (Kowalski,Giumetti,Schroeder,&Lattanner,2014).Furthermore, anonymityallowedtotheaggressorsbyICTs(Nocentinietal.,2010) makesdefendingfrom theattackseven harder for thevictims. Inaddiction,largeraudienceof bystanderscanalsobereached (Nocentinietal.,2010)andoftenpeerswho witnessthe cyber-bullyingactiontakethesideofthebully,byshowingtoapprove theaggression.It happensbecause,when usingICT,direct con-tactandface-to-facecommunicationwiththevictimsarelacking, sothattheaggressors andthebystandersareless awareofthe seriousnessoftheirbehaviorandofthesufferinginﬂictedtothe victim.

Regardlessofthesespeciﬁcitiesofcyberbullying,manyvictims ofcyberbullyingarealsovictimsoftraditionalbullying(Smithetal., 2008),andyoungpeoplewhoexperiencedtraditionalvictimization withintheprevious6monthsare2.5timesmorelikelytobe cyber-victimizedtoo(Hinduja&Patchin,2008).Thesedatasupportthe hypothesisthatbeingvictimizedinthecyberspaceisonlyanother wayforbulliedkidstosufferpeervictimization.

EmotionalConsequencesofCyberbullyingandBullying

Victimsof traditionalbullyinghavebeenfoundtobeatrisk ofpoorhealthsymptoms,internalizingproblems,andsuicidality (e.g., Kim & Leventhal, 2008; Reijntjes, Kamphuis, Prinzie, & Telch,2010).Among adverse consequences of beingvictimized there is also experiencing negative emotional reactions (e.g., Rodríguez-Hidalgo,Ortega,&Monks,2015),linkedtothefeeling ofbeingdefenselessandofhavingascarcecontrolofthesituation (Caravita,2007;Graham&Juvonen,2001).Thismayaffectheart ratevariabilityin witnesses(Barhight,Hubbard,&Hyde,2013), and the levels of distress, depression and worries for at least somevictimsoftraditionalbullying(Ortega,Elipe,Mora-Merchán, Calmaestra,&Vega,2009).

Focusingoncyberbulling,FenaughtyandHarré (2013)found thatapproximately50%ofcybervictimsconsiderthisexperience upsetting.Ortegaetal.(2009)showedthattherearetwoclustersof cybervictims:youth,mainlygirls,whotendnottobebotheredby thesituation,andyouth,mainlyboys,whoexperiencehighlevels ofdifferentnegativeemotions.Inastudyinvolving1,353 adoles-cents,beingcyberbulliedhadagreaternegativeemotionalimpact especiallyforvictimswhowerebothbulliedoutofandwithinthe cyberspace,incomparisontopeerswhowereonlycybervictimized (Gualdo, Hunter, Durkin, Arnaiz, & Maquilón 2015). Therefore, bulliedyouthmayfeelthecyberbullyingexperienceparticularly upsetting. However,toourknowledge nostudies have investi-gatedwhethertheexposuretocyberbullyingcanactuallycause inbulliedyouth,incomparisontopeers,higherlevelsofdistress, assessedbymeansofnotonlyself-reportsofnegativeemotionsbut alsobymeansofmorepreciseindices(i.e.,psycho-physiological responsesandattentionalbehaviors),thantheexposureto tradi-tionalbullyingandothertypesofpeer-interactions.Furthermore, wecouldnotﬁndstudiestestingthelevelsofdistressandnegative emotionselicitedbytheexposuretocyberbullyingascompared totraditionalbullyingandotherformsofpeer-interactionsinthe witnesses,regardlessofbeingbulliedornot.

ThePresentStudy

Twoexperimentalstudieshavebeenrealizedtoexamine emo-tional (self-report), physiological (biofeedback equipment), and behavioral(eye-trackerequipment)responsestotheexposureto situationsofcyberbullying, bullying,prosocial,andneutral peer interactions.Thesituationshavebeenrepresentedviamultimedia video-stimuli.

Study1involved61adolescents(11-16years),whilestudy2was aretrospectivestudyinvolving35youngadults(20-26years).First objectiveofthestudieswasexploringwhetherthevisionof cyber-bullyingsituationselicitsdifferentlevelsofemotionaland physio-logicalresponsesinthevictimsofbullyingatschoolascomparedto non-victims.Cyberbullyingsituationswerecomparedtobullying situations,prosocial,andneutralpeerinteractions(allshowedby meansofvideos).Theﬁrsthypothesiswasthatwatching cyberbul-lyingelicitsinthevictimsofbullyinghigherlevelsofdistressand negativeemotionsthanwatchingbullyinghappening,becauseof thefeaturesofcyberbullying,i.e.,possibleanonymityofthebullies andpermanencyoftheattacksinthecyber-space,whichget difﬁ-culttoescapethecyber-aggressionforthevictim.Thevisionofboth cyberbullyingandbullyingwasalsoexpectedtoelicitdifferent lev-elsofphysiologicalresponsesandnegativeemotionsinthevictims thanthevisionofprosocialorneutralpeerinteractions.Thesecond hypothesiswasthatthevisionofbothcyberbullyingandbullying elicitshigherlevelsofstress(asmeasuredbyvariationin physiolog-icalindexes)andnegativeemotionsinbullyingvictimsthanpeers.

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Thesecondpurposeofthestudywasexploringwhether, inde-pendently of being bullied, watching cyberbullying happening causeshigherlevelsofdistressandnegativeemotionsthanbeing exposedtobullyingsituationsorotherkindsofpeerinteractions (thirdhypothesis).Visionofbullyingwasalsoexpectedtoelicit higherlevelsofphysiological andnegativeemotionalresponses thanthevisionofothertypesofpeerinteractions.

In Study2, besidesexaminingthesamehypotheses we had fortheStudy1,wealsoexploredthepatternofvisualattention andcognitiveelaboration,byusingeye-trackingtechnology(ET). Participants’ eye-movements were recorded while they were watchingthepeer-interactionvideos.UsingETtoassessthelink betweenemotions and cognitivebehaviors (e.g., attention) has been used successfully in different studies (e.g., Neath &Itier, 2014;Schmid,Schmid Mast,Bombari, Mast, &Lobmaier,2011) highlightinghowdifferentvisualbehaviorsmirrordifferent atten-tional and cognitivestates (Colombo, DiNuzzo, &Mazzuchelli, 2010;Colomboetal.,2013b).Wewouldexpectthatbullyingand cyberbullyingvideosshouldelicitmoreattentionthantheother, because of their emotional content. People experiencing more negativeandactiveemotions(likeanger)lookmoreandearlier towardemotionalstimuli.Hence,victimsmayshowamoreactive explorationinresponsetothecyberbullyingandbullyingvideos,as moreemotionalforthemthantheothervideos.Basedonliterature onbullying,whichconsistentlyshowsgender-relateddifferences withregardstoinvolvementinbullyingandresponsestobullying, theeffectsofgenderwerecontrolledforintheanalysisdesign.

Study1

Method Participants

Participantswere61earlyadolescents(age:11-16y.,M=12.9 y.,SD=1.5y.;65.7%girls),attendingmiddle(86.7)andhigh(13.3%) schoolsinthenorthofItaly,intheareasofBresciaandMilano; 92.6%ofthestudentswerefromItaliandescent.Participantswere contactedthrougheducationalcentersthattheyattendedinthe post-schooltimeandtheirmiddleschools. Participants’parents providedactiveconsentbysigningaletterinformingonthestudy. Lessthan6%ofthecontactedyouthwerenotconsentedto partici-patebyparents.

Procedure

The Ethical Committee of the Department of Psychology of the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart approved the researchproject.Datawerecollectedattheparticipants’schools/ educationalcenters.First,theself-reportmeasureonvictimization (seetheMeasuressection)wasadministeredin(approximately) 1hour group-sessions,withparticipantssittingatsingledesks. A research assistant supervised each session, answering pos-sible participants’ questions. Then, during single sessions each participant watched the four videos, which weredisplayed on a personal computer in a random order. While watching each movieparticipants’physiologicalresponseswereassessedusing abiofeedbackequipment(seedescriptionbelow).Beforestarting towatchthevideos,baselinescoresofthephysiologicalindexes wererecordedduring a1-minutesession in which participants wereaskedtorelax,andnottotalk.Afterwatchingeachmovie, participantsansweredaself-reportmeasure(seetheMeasures sec-tion)toassesstheemotionalresponseselicitedbythemovie.A researcher,whowasalsoapsychologist,supervisedeachsession andrealizedasubsequentdebrieﬁngtoensurethatparticipants werenot upsetbywatching themoviesand ended thesession with a positive or a neutral feeling. At the beginning of any

session,participantswereassuredconﬁdentialityand weretold that they couldwithdraw from thestudy at anytime without consequences.

Measures

Psychophysiological reactions. Psychophysiological reactions were recorded by means of the Biofeedback 2000x-pert _(BFB; Schuhfried GmbH,Austria)equipment,which is a non-invasive instrument thatmonitors andrecordsindividual’s physiological activity.Physiologicalindexesarerecordedanddirectlydelivered tothe2000x-pert_software_via_Bluetooth_thanks_to_a_sensor_which_is connectedtotheparticipant’sﬁngeranddoesnotcauseanypain ordiscomforttotheperson.Thephysiologicalindexeswerecorded were:skinconductance(SCL,recordedwitharesolutionof16Bit, asamplerateof2KHz,rangebetween0and50␮Sandan accu-racyof0.65␮S@0.012␮Sresolution),bloodvolumepulse(BVP, recordedwitharesolutionof12Bit,samplerate500Hzand inte-grationtimeof100ms),pulsevolumeamplitude(PVAderivedfrom BVP),andpulsefrequency.BVP,PVA,andpulsefrequencyindexes reﬂectheartratevariability(HRV).

Victimization. Areduced version of the Olweus’Bully/Victim Questionnaire(Solberg& Olweus,2003)wasadministered.The measureconsistedof16items,exploringtheexperiencesof bul-lyingandbeingbulliedatschoolduringthelasttwomonths.One itemassessedthefrequencyofbeingvictimized(Howoftenhave you beenbulliedbyotherchildren at schoolorat therouteto school duringlast two months?). Themeasure reported at the beginningadeﬁnitionofbullying(ascomparedtoothertypesof aggression),whichwasreadaloudanddiscussedwithparticipants bytheadministrator,beforeparticipantsansweringthemeasure. Theitemresponsescaleconsistedof5options:never,ithappened onlyonceortwice,sometimes,onceperweek,andseveraltimesper week.Pupilswhoansweredtobebulliedatleastonceortwicewere codiﬁedasvictims.

Self-reportedemotions.Participants evaluatedtheiremotional responsestoeachvideo,byrating20emotionsona7-pointsLikert scale.Weselectedthe20emotionsfollowingthedimensionsused todevise theratingscalefor theIAPSsystem(Lang,Bradley, & Cuthbert,1997),andsuggestionsbyLangetal.(1997).Accordingly, the emotions covered the following three main dimensions of emotional responses: affective valence (ranging from pleasant tounpleasant),arousal(rangingfromcalmtoexcited),and con-trol.Weselectedsuchawiderangeofemotionsinordernotto inﬂuenceparticipants’response,guidingtheirpreferencetowards ourtargetsemotions.Forthecurrentstudyweconsideredonly thefourprimarynegativeemotions(Ekman,Sorenson,&Friesen, 1969):anger, fear,sadness, disgust; thetwosocial emotionsof blameandshame;and,basedonliteratureonbullyingvictims,the emotionalresponsesofanxietyanddespair.

Videos. Four 1-minute videos were used. All the videos representedinteractionsamongadolescentscharacters:onevideo represented a cyberbullying peer interaction in which a pupil wasbulliedbytwoclassmateswhosharedbyphonesavictim’s embarrassing videoamongclassmates; onevideorepresenteda face-to-facebullyingsituationinwhichachildwasphysically bul-lied(i.e.,intentionallyhitwithabasket-balltomakehimfalling) byaclassmate;onevideorepresentedaprosocialinteraction,in whichduringanightcampinanisolatedareaanadolescent com-fortedhisfriendwhowasscared;oneneutralsituation,inwhich fouradolescentswerewaitinganddiscussingthearrivalofacousin. Thevideosaboutbullying,prosocial,andneutralinteractionswere builtforapreviousstudy(Caravita,Fabio,&Pagnin,20031_),_and

1_The_ﬁrst_author_of_the_current_manuscript_can_be_contacted_to_receive_detailed

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Table1

Study1:MeansandStandardDeviationsofPhysiologicalIndexesandEmotions.

Bullyingvideo Cyberbullyingvideo

Boys Girls Boys Girls

Non-victims Victims Non-victims Victims Non-victims Victims Non-victims Victims

Mean(SD) Mean(SD) Mean(SD) Mean(SD) Mean(SD) Mean(SD) Mean(SD) Mean(SD)

SCL 14.67(6.75) 17.59(12.94) 11.82(8.21) 16.24(7.73) 14.17(6.80) 17.12(13.04) 11.31(8.28) 15.76(7.78) BVP 49.84(0.12) 49.74(0.19) 49.86(0.21) 49.86(0.11) 49.50(0.03) 49.48(0.04) 49.50(0.05) 49.50(0.02) PVA 35.02(9.79) 45.90(13.15) 38.80(10.22) 32.71(9.22) 34.33(7.40) 42.54(9.94) 37.18(7.72) 32.58(6.97) Pulse 74.07(5.40) 69.26(8.04) 75.82(8.96) 78.21(6.19) 72.67(5.07) 68.16(7.54) 74.31(8.41) 76.56(5.81) Anger 5.39(1.54) 5.38(1.69) 5.38(1.47) 5.67(1.41) 3.38(1.88) 3.75(1.48) 3.75(1.96) 4.67(2.06) Fear 1.83(1.20) 1.63(1.06) 1.64(1.35) 1.78(1.56) 1.44(1.04) 1.75(1.16) 1.44(.82) 2.44(1.81) Sadness 4.39(1.97) 4.38(2.39) 4.08(1.66) 4.56(2.30) 2.89(1.57) 3.13(1.13) 3.04(1.67) 4.56(1.51) Disgust 4.44(1.85) 3.75(2.55) 4.50(2.30) 3.88(2.71) 2.94(1.73) 2.38(1.85) 3.67(2.08) 2.78(2.17) Blame 1.94(1.35) 1.50(1.07) 1.75(1.15) 1.00(0.00) 2.11(1.75) 1.88(1.25) 1.71(1.30) 1.67(1.66) Shame 2.72(2.30) 1.75(1.16) 1.67(1.31) 1.78(1.99) 2.83(1.86) 2.25(1.28) 2.17(1.79) 1.89(1.17) Anxiety 3.06(1.96) 2.25(1.91) 2.63(1.97) 2.00(2.12) 2.61(2.03) 2.25(1.58) 2.29(1.76) 3.00(2.65) Despair 3.50(2.07) 2.75(1.98) 2.08(1.67) 3.67(2.74) 2.50(2.00) 1.38(.74) 1.67(1.13) 3.44(2.51)

Prosocialvideo Neutralvideo

SCL 13.61(5.74) 16.10(11.02) 11.19(6.99) 14.96(6.58) 14.11(5.97) 16.70(11.45) 11.60(7.27) 15.51(6.83) BVP 49.78(0.01) 49.79(0.02) 49.78(0.02) 49.78(0.01) 49.81(0.05) 49.77(0.08) 49.82(0.09) 49.82(0.05) PVA 39.09(9.02) 49.11(12.12) 42.57(9.41) 36.96(8.50) 39.33(8.76) 49.06(11.77) 42.71(9.14) 37.26(8.25) Pulse 74.98(4.81) 70.69(7.16) 76.53(7.98) 78.67(5.51) 74.07(4.50) 70.06(6.71) 75.53(7.47) 77.52(5.16) Anger 1.94(1.73) 2.00(1.20) 1.25(.53) 1.00(0.00) 2.50(1.50) 3.25(1.75) 2.00(1.44) 3.44(2.40) Fear 1.78(1.11) 3.00(2.07) 1.76(1.45) 3.00(2.78) 1.56(.92) 1.25(.46) 1.44(.87) 1.11(.33) Sadness 4.11(1.32) 3.50(1.69) 4.44(1.98) 3.44(2.40) 3.00(2.06) 3.13(2.03) 2.96(2.05) 3.22(2.49) Disgust 1.78(1.59) 1.63(1.41) 1.21(.83) 1.33(1.00) 2.72(1.60) 2.50(2.27) 2.17(1.69) 2.66(2.35) Blame 1.44(1.42) 1.50(0.76) 1.17(0.48) 2.44(2.60) 1.50(0.92) 2.00(1.60) 1.38(0.77) 1.67(2.00) Shame 1.28(.46) 1.63(.92) 1.17(.38) 1.22(.67) 2.00(1.19) 1.25(.46) 1.38(.77) 1.78(1.99) Anxiety 2.44(1.79) 2.25(1.75) 2.54(1.93) 2.44(2.60) 2.06(1.51) 2.13(1.13) 2.17(1.74) 2.00(2.12) Despair 2.89(2.11) 1.88(1.13) 1.54(1.22) 2.33(2.18) 2.78(1.83) 1.88(1.64) 1.58(1.10) 2.11(1.36) Note.SCL:SkinConductanceLevel;BVP:BloodVolumePulse;PVA:PressureVolumeAmplitude;Pulse:PulseFrequency.

Table2

Study1:SummaryofANOVAIndexesforPhysiologicalIndexesasDependentVariables.

Skinconductancelevel Bloodvolumepulse Pressurevolumeamplitude Pulsefrequency

F(df) ␩2 _F(df) _␩2 _F(df) _␩2 _F(df) _␩2

Video 21.43(3,162)*** _.284 _174.07_(3,₁₆₂₎*** _.763 _317.27_(3,₁₆₂₎*** _.855 _151.27_(3,₁₆₂₎*** _.737

Beingvictim 2.203(1,54) .039 1.076(1,54) .020 .630(1,54) .012 0.306(1,54) .006

Gender 0.717(1,54) .013 1.967(1,54) .035 2.437(1,54) .043 5.982(1,54)* _.100

Videoxbeingvictim 2.203(3,162)† _.039 _1.076_(3,₁₆₂₎ _.020 _0.630_(3,₁₆₂₎ _.012 _0.306_(3,₁₆₂₎ _.006

Videoxgender 0.717(3,162) .013 1.967(3,162) .035 2.437(3,162)† .043 5.982(3,162)*** _.100

Beingvictimxgender 0.092(1,54) .002 1.189(1,54) .022 7.924(1,54)** _.128 _2.709_(1,₅₄₎ _.048

Videoxbeingvictimxgender 0.092(3,162) .002 1.189(3,162) .022 7.924(3,162)*** _.128 _2.709_(3,₁₆₂₎* _.048

† _p_<_.10.

* _p_<_.05.

** _p_<_.01.

***_p_<_.001

wereextractedbymoviestargetinganadolescentaudience.The videoaboutcyberbullyinghasbeendesignedforschool interven-tionsoncyberbullyingandconsistedofastoryinwhichagirlwas cyberbulliedbyclassmates.Noneofparticipantshadseenthevideo ortheoriginalmoviesbeforetheirparticipationinthestudy. AnalysisStrategy

Data were analyzed by means of analyses of variance test (withStudentNewmanKeulspost-hoctests,andpairwise com-parison),totestdifferences inthemeanscoresofphysiological

whichthemoviesweretestedtoensurethebalanceoftheirstructureandthatthey wererepresentativeofthethreecategoriesofpeerinteractions.

responsesandself-evaluationsofemotions.“Videos”was intro-ducedinthemodelaswithinvariable,victimcondition(victimsvs. non-victims)andgenderasfixedfactors.Atapreliminaryscreening ofthedata,nooutliersemerged.Toexcludeanypossible influ-enceduetotheindividualvariabilityinphysiologicalactivation, wepreliminarilyregressedeachphysiologicalindexvaluerecorded duringthetaskonthebaselinevalue.Wesavedtheunstandardized residuals and usedthese values to run ouranalyses. This pro-cedureforcleaningdataderivedfrombiofeedbackrecordingsis commonly used in experiments that rely on psychophysiologi-caldata(e.g.,Antonietti, Colombo,&DiNuzzo,2015;Colombo, Grati, DiNuzzo, & Antonietti, 2013). Whensignificant interac-tioneffectsemerged,follow-upANOVAswereperformedtoclarify them.

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Results

PhysiologicalReactions

Meansandstandard deviationsofthephysiological variables (residual scores) are displayed in Table 1. When performing ANOVAs, the main effect of the videos was significant for all theindexes(Table2).Inpairwisecomparisons(mainsignificant results),SCLscoredhigherforthebullyingvideothanfortheother videos.SCLforthecyberbullyingvideowashigherthanSCLforthe prosocialvideo.BVPindexwashigherforthebullyingvideothan forthecyberbullyingvideo;BVPforCyberbullyingwasalsolower thanBVPfortheprosocialandtheneutralvideos.PVAindexesfor allvideossignificantlydifferedfromeachother,withPVAscoring lowerforcyberbullyingthanfortheothervideos.Pulsefrequency forthecyberbullyingwaslowerthanpulsefrequencyfortheother videos.Pulsefrequencyforbullyingwasalsolowerthanpulse fre-quencyfortheprosocialvideo.

The interaction effect type of video x beingvictimized was marginalfortheSCLindex(Table2).Infollow-upANOVAstheeffect ofbeingvictimizedwasnotsigniﬁcantforallthefourvideos,butin eachvideovictimsshowedhigherSCLindexesthannon-victims.

ForthePVAindextheinteractioneffectstypeofvideoxgender, andoftypeofvideoxgenderxbeingvictimizedweremarginal andsignificant,respectively.Infollow-upANOVAsnosignificant differences between victims and non-victims emerged among girls.Amongboys,theinteractioneffectoftypeofvideoxbeing victimized was significant, F(3, 69)=5.391, p<.001, ␩2₌_.19): victimsscoredsignificantlyhigherthannon-victimsforallthefour videos,allvideos,F(1,21)=5.391,p<.05,␩2₌_.19_but_among vic-tims,cyberbullyingelicitedsignificantlylowerPVAthanbullying, andbothcyberbullyingandbullyingcausedlowerPVAthanthe othertypesofpeerinteractions.Amongnon-victims,PVAindexes weresignificantlylowerforthebullyingandcyberbullyingvideos thantheothervideos.

Effectsoftypeofthevideo,typeofvideoxgenderandoftype ofvideoxgenderxbeingvictimizedweresignificantforthepulse frequency.Whenexaminingthethree-wayeffect,amonggirlsonly themaineffectofthetypeofvideowassignificant,F(3,93)=64.156, p<.001,␩2₌_.67:_pulse_frequency_scored_{significantly}_lower_for_the cyberbullyingvideothanfortheothervideos,andforthebullying video in comparison totheprosocial one.Among boys, signifi-canteffectsoftypeofvideo,F(3,69)=112.312,p<.001,␩2₌_.83, andofthetypeofvideoxbeingvictimized,F(3,69)=3.151,p<.05, ␩2₌_.12,_emerged._When_examining_the_two-way_interaction_effect, onlytheeffectoftypeofvideowassignificant,anditwasforboth non-victims,F(1,16)=10.388,p<.001,␩2₌_.39,_and _victims,_F(3, 21)=29.834,p<.001,␩2₌_.81._The_significant_differences_between pairsofvideosweresimilaramongnon-victimsandvictims: cyber-bullyingelicitedlowerpulsefrequencythantheothervideos;pulse frequencywasalsolowerforbullyingincomparisontothe proso-cialsituation.

Self-reportsofEmotions

Means and standard deviations of the self-rated emotional responsesarereportedinTable1;ANOVAsindicesaredisplayed inTable3.Nosignificantmainandinteractioneffectsemergedfor anxiety.For alltheotheremotions,apartfromblame,themain effectofthevideowassignificant.Thebullyingvideoelicited sig-nificantlyhigherlevelsofangerthantheotherthreevideos,and gendermoderatedthiseffect(Table3).Amongbothboysandgirls, themain effect of video was significant: boys,F(3, 75)=33.19, p<.001,_␩2₌_.57;_girls,_F(3,₉₆₎₌_72.85,_p_<_.001,_␩2₌_.70,_and_all_the differencesbetweentypesofvideoweresignificantatthepairwise

comparison,withbullyingvideoelicitingthehighestanger,and Table

3 Study 1: Summary of ANOVA Indexes for Emotions as Dependent Variables. Anger Fear Sadness Disgust Blame Shame Anxiety Despair F (df ) ␩ 2 F (df ) ␩ 2 F (df ) ␩ 2 F (df ) ␩ 2 F (df ) ␩ 2 F (df ) ␩ 2 F (df ) ␩ 2 F (df ) ␩ 2 Video 81.979 *** (3, 165) .598 8.361 *** (3, 168) .130 6.568 *** (3, 168) .105 22.344 *** (3, 165) .289 .744 (3, 165) .013 7.070 *** (3, 165) .114 1.268 (3, 165) .023 5.519 *** (3, 165) .091 Being victim 1.859 (1, 55) .033 2.166 (1, 56) .037 0.102 (1, 56) .002 0.774 (1, 55) .014 0.085 (1, 55) .002 0.541 (1, 55) .010 0.164 (1, 55) .003 0.083 (1, 55) .002 Gender 0.029 (1, 55) .001 0.033 (1, 56) .001 0.327 (1, 56) .006 0.001 (1, 55) .000 0.240 (1, 55) .004 1.385 (1, 55) .025 0.000 (1, 55) .000 0.129 (1, 55) .002 Video x being victim 2.117 (3, 165) .037 5.431 ** (3, 168) .088 2.553 †(3, 168) .044 0.895 (3, 165) .016 3.859 *(3, 165) .066 0.886 (3, 165) .016 1.107 (3, 165) .020 0.716 (3, 165) .013 Video x Gender 2.878 *(3, 165) .050 0.472 (3, 168) .008 0.797 (3, 168) .014 0.843 (3, 165) .015 1.227 (3, 165) .022 0.503 (3, 165) .009 0.472 (3, 165) .009 2.043 (3, 165) .036 Being victim x gender 0.230 (1, 55) .004 0.249 (1, 56) .004 0.238 (1, 56) .004 0.071 (1, 55) .001 0.163 (1, 55) .003 0.986 (1, 55) .018 0.094 (1, 55) .002 7.507 ** (1, 55) .120 Video x being victim x gender 0.365 (3, 165) .007 0.316 (3, 168) .006 0.648 (3, 168) .011 0.216 (3, 165) .004 1.487 (3, 165) .026 1.170 (3, 165) .021 0.601 (3, 165) .011 0.792 (3, 165) .014 †p < .10. *p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

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cyberbullyingvideocausinghigherlevelsofemotionthanthe neu-tralandtheprosocialvideo.Boysreportedtofeelhigherangerthan girlsonlyfortheprosocialvideo,F(1,58)=7.76,p<.01,␩2₌_.12.

Significantly,higherfearwaselicitedbytheprosocialvideoin comparisontothebullyingvideo,andbythecyberbullyingvideo incomparisontotheneutralvideo.Witnessingbullyingcaused sig-nificanthighersadnessthanwitnessingcyberbullyingandneutral peer-interactions.Bullyingalsoelicitedhigherdespairanddisgust thantheothervideos.Cyberbullyingcaused significantlyhigher shamethantheprosocialandtheneutralvideosandhigherdisgust thantheprosocialvideo.

Withregardstobeing victimized,and focusing onthemain results,the2-wayinteractioneffectsofbeingvictimizedxvideo wassigniﬁcantforfear,blame,and(marginally,p=.06)sadness.In follow-upANOVAs,incomparisontonon-victims,victimsscored higherforfearandsadnessforthecyberbullyingvideo:fear,F(1, 58)=4.46,p<.05,␩2₌_.07;_sadness,_F(1,₅₈₎₌_4.00,_p₌_.05,_␩2₌_.07, andtheyscoredmarginallylowerfortheblameresponsesthatwere elicitedbythebullyingvideo,F(1,58)=3.61,p=.06,␩2₌_.06).

Discussion

Theresultsonphysiologicalresponsesindicatethatthe expo-suretobullying and,inparticular, cyberbullyingelicited higher stressincomparisontotheothervideos.Thiscanbederived espe-cially by the signiﬁcantly higher levels of SCL recorded in our samplewhileparticipantswerewatchingthetwovideosofbullying andcyberbullying.SCLisanelectrodermalmeasureassessingthe activityoftheSomaticNervousSystem(SNS).BecauseSNSactivity increasesandispredominantinstressfulsituations,thechanges inSCLareparticularlyusefultodetectchangeselicitedbystress (Boucsein,2012).

Resultsalsosupportthehypothesis thatcyberbullyingelicits higherstress,especiallyinvictims.Thisismirroredbythevalues oftheindexesrelatedtoHRV,whichamongvictimizedboyswere signiﬁcantlylowerwhenwatchingcyberbullyingthanothervideos, includingbullying.HRVindexesareusuallylowerinpeople expe-riencingpsychologicalstress(Delaney&Brodie,2000;Hjortskov etal.,2004).

With regards to self-reported emotional responses, in comparison to cyberbullying bullying produced higher emo-tions of anger, sadness, despair, and disgust. Nevertheless, in comparison toprosocial andneutral interactions,cyberbullying causedhigheremotionsofanger,shame,fear(thanneutralpeer interactions),anddisgust(thanprosocialinteractions).

When comparing victims to non-victims, the exposure to cyberbullying,butnottobullying,elicitedhigherfearandsadness invictims.Curiously,victimsalsoreportedtofeelhigherfearthan peersduringthevisionoftheprosocialvideo,maybeduetothe features of video (the wild environment where the two peers wereduringthenight,whichcouldbepotentiallyscaring).This ﬁndingmayexpressa higheremotionalityofthevictims,but it mayalsoexpressbiasesinvictims’attributiontointentsinsocial interactions, which elicit victims’ higher negative expectations and,subsequently,emotionswhenwatchingpeersinteracting.

Study2

Method Participants

Participantswere35youngadults(60%girls,aged20-26years, M=23.20y.,SD=1.61y.).Theywereallundergraduatestudents (majorsinhumanisticsciences,economicandpolitical sciences, educationalsciencesandpsychology),contactedduringclassesand attheuniversitycommonareasbyresearchassistants.Participants

wereinformedaboutthestudypurposes,procedure,andmethods andprovidedactivewrittenconsent.

Procedure

ProcedurewasthesameusedfortheStudy1.Eye-movements (behavioralindexesfor attentionallocation)werealsorecorded whileparticipantswatchingthevideos.

ToolsandMeasures

Videos, techniques, and measures to assess physiological indexesandemotionalresponseswerethesameusedfortheStudy 1.

Victimization.Aretrospectiveversion ofthemeasureusedin Study1wasadministered.Afterprovidingthedeﬁnitionof bul-lying, theparticipant wasrequestedtorespond30itemsabout her/hisexperiencesinbullying(asbully,victim,orbystander)when attendingmiddleandhighschool:15itemspereachofthetwo schoollevels.Oneitempereachschoollevelaskedwhetherthe respondentwasbulliedatschool,askingalsotospecifythe fre-quency.Participantswhoansweredtobebulliedatleastonceor twiceduringmiddleand/orhighschoolhavebeencodiﬁedas vic-tims.

EyeMovements.Eye movementswhilewatchingvideoswere recordedbyusingtheeye-trackingtechnology.Itallowsanalyzing individuals’visualandattentionalbehavior,recordinggaze move-mentsaswellaswatcherdilatationandcontraction.WeusedTobii x-120eye-trackerandanalyzeddatabymeansoftheTobiiStudio software.Thistoolisbasedontheuseofinfraredrayswhichare reﬂectedbythehuman’scrystalline(independentlyofwearingor notglassesorcontactlenses),andthenrecordedbyaCCDsensor. Calibrationisrunforeveryparticipantonthebaseof9different points.

Results

PhysiologicalReactions

The analysis strategy was the same of Study 1. Means and standard deviations of the physiological variables are reported in Table 4. The two-way and the three-way effects of type of video x genderx beingvictimized weresignificant for theSCL index(Table5).Amongboys,victimshadlowerSCLscoresforthe bullyingandcyberbullyingvideosandhigherfortheprosocialand theneutral videos,whilethecontrarywastruefornon-victims. Victims scored lower than non-victims for the bullying and cyberbullyingvideos.However,noneoftheseeffectsreachedthe statisticalsignificanceatthefollow-upANOVAtests.Nosignificant effectsemergedfortheotherphysiologicalreactions.

Behavioralindexes

RepeatedmeasuresANOVAshavebeencomputedtoexplore possibledifferencesin participants’visualbehaviors(dependent variable)whilewatchingthefourvideos,includingthegenderand thevictimstatusasﬁxedfactors.Meanscoresandstandard devia-tionofthedifferentindexesarereportedinTable4.

Workingwithavideoandnotwithsingleimages,wefirst com-putedameanscorealongthevideosforalltheconsideredindexes. Theseindexeswereconsideredwithreferencetospecificpartsof thestimuli(called“areasof interest”,AOI).In ourcase, theAOI werethepartsofthescreenwherethemainactionsforeachvideo happened.Theindexeswere:FirstFixationDuration(FFD), Obser-vationCount(OC,thenumberofvisitsandre-visitstoanAOI),and ObservationLength(OL,thetotaltime inmillisecondsforevery timeapersonhaslookedwithinanAOI).Thefirsttwoindexesgive anindicationofattentiontowardstheactionsshowninthevideos,

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Table4

Study2:MeansandStandardDeviationsofPhysiologicalandBehavioralIndexes,andEmotions.

Bullyingvideo Cyberbullyingvideo

FFD 0.33(0.13) 0.27(0.12) 0.18(0.08) 0.24(0.14) 0.54(0.16) 0.29(0.11) 0.25(0.13) 0.28(0.22) OC 8.88(3.01) 9.44(1.83) 8.96(5.52) 7.83(4.34) 10.24(2.31) 9.13(1.28) 9.90(3.93) 9.87(3.42) OL 10.70(1.44) 9.60(2.14) 9.98(1.98) 9.24(2.64) 10.34(1.36) 9.95(2.14) 10.29(1.23) 8.60(2.67) SCL 2.83(11.99) -0.92(1.63) -0.46(1.35) -0.12(.50) 0.36(6.92) -0.14(2.36) 0.17(1.89) -0.20(1.09) BVP 0.02(0.13) 0.02(0.10) 0.00(0.057) -0.03(0.07) 0.04(0.05) -0.00(0.07) -0.01(0.14) -0.01(0.04) PVA -0.52(7.33) -3.36(11.94) -3.65(7.86) 6.31(13.20) -2.61(7.58) 1.96(13.27) 6.42(10.77) -3.99(14.36) Pulse -0.82(1.53) -2.52(12.30) 3.70(8.19) -0.93(5.28) -1.70(1.51) -1.21(10.92) 2.98(5.86) -0.94(5.61) Anger 4.60(1.34) 4.56(1.67) 4.30(2.21) 4.82(1.78) 3.80(1.64) 1.44(1.01) 3.90(1.73) 2.55(2.07) Fear 1.80(0.84) 1.11(0.33) 1.70(1.16) 2.18(1.72) 2.40(2.61) 1.00(0.00) 1.50(0.85) 1.00(0.00) Sadness 4.60(1.95) 4.22(2.17) 3.10(2.08) 3.73(1.79) 3.00(1.58) 1.67(1.00) 4.00(1.83) 2.55(2.02) Disgust 3.40(1.67) 4.89(2.32) 3.30(2.16) 3.00(2.10) 2.80(1.48) 1.78(0.83) 1.90(1.59) 1.18(0.40) Blame 3.00(1.87) 1.11(0.33) 2.40(1.90) 2.45(2.34) 3.20(2.05) 1.11(0.33) 1.10(.32) 1.64(1.57) Shame 4.00(2.83) 2.22(1.86) 2.80(2.04) 2.09(1.51) 3.20(1.92) 1.11(0.33) 2.30(1.77) 2.36(1.86) Anxiety 3.80(2.17) 2.78(2.11) 2.20(1.99) 2.18(1.40) 3.40(2.07) 1.11(0.33) 2.10(1.66) 2.45(1.81) Despair 2.40(2.19) 1.89(1.36) 1.30(0.95) 1.45(1.21) 2.80(2.05) 1.11(0.33) 1.10(0.32) 1.00(0.45)

Prosocialvideo Neutralvideo

FFD 0.32(0.14) 0.42(0.46) 0.18(0.12) 0.25(0.18) 0.39(0.10) 0.43(0.29) 0.32(0.15) 0.31(0.22) OC 7.00(3.05) 6.18(1.64) 7.42(7.27) 6.44(5.51) 9.88(2.41) 9.69(1.78) 10.00(4.05) 8.60(3.54) OL 10.97(1.57) 10.31(2.18) 11.18(3.14) 10.05(3.70) 10.08(1.68) 10.40(1.38) 10.02(1.68) 8.60(3.29) SCL -1.73(1.45) 1.05(3.45) -0.21(1.89) 0.13(2.35) -0.46(4.36) 0.60(3.24) -0.49(1.52) 0.15(1.65) BVP 0.05(0.08) -0.03(0.16) 0.05(0.13) -0.04(0.11) 0.03(0.07) -0.01(0.10) 0.02(0.08) -0.02(0.10) PVA -5.42(11.23) 5.28(9.57) 1.73(7.69) 3.19(19.59) -2.51(10.91) -1.12(7.78) 2.33(11.10) -0.33(22.32) Pulse 0.21(3.53) -2.87(11.89) 2.34(7.57) 0.12(5.93) -0.35(2.43) -1.77(13.22) 4.30(6.45) -2.30(10.76) Anger 1.60(0.89) 1.00(0.00) 1.50(1.27) 1.27(0.65) 1.60(0.89) 1.22(0.67) 1.50(0.85) 1.55(1.04) Fear 1.80(1.30) 1.11(0.33) 1.90(1.52) 1.36(.92) 1.40(0.55) 1.00(0.00) 1.20(0.42) 1.09(0.30) Sadness 4.40(1.14) 2.89(1.62) 3.90(2.28) 3.00(1.48) 2.00(1.00) 1.67(1.00) 1.90(1.66) 1.64(1.03) Disgust 1.40(0.89) 1.00(0.00) 1.40(1.26) 1.09(0.30) 1.60(0.55) 1.22(0.67) 1.10(0.32) 1.27(0.90) Blame 1.20(0.45) 1.00(0.00) 1.30(0.95) 1.09(0.30) 1.00(0.00) 1.67(2.00) 1.50(1.27) 1.09(0.30) Shame 1.00(0.00) 1.00(0.00) 1.20(0.63) 1.00(0.00) 1.13(0.52) 1.00(0.00) 1.20(0.45) 1.22(0.67) Anxiety 2.60(1.67) 1.67(0.71) 2.40(1.78) 1.18(0.40) 2.80(2.49) 1.22(0.44) 2.00(1.76) 1.27(0.90) Despair 2.20(1.30) 1.67(1.12) 1.30(0.67) 1.09(0.30) 1.60(1.34) 1.44(0.73) 1.10(0.32) 1.09(0.30) Note.FFD:FirstFixationDuration;OC:ObservationCount;OL:ObservationLength;SCL:SkinConductanceLevel;BVP:BloodVolumePulse;PVA:PressureVolumeAmplitude; Pulse:PulseFrequency.

whiletheindexeslinkedtotheobservationsinformusmoreabout thecognitiveelaborationofthepresentedevents.

ConsideringtheFFDindex,amaineffectofgenderemerged, F(1, 31)=8.91, p<.01, ␩2₌_.22 _(see _Table ₅_). _The _within

sub-jects testsdidnot highlightanysignificanteffectofthevideos, F(3,93)=2.13,p=.10,␩2₌_.06,_but_a_planned_contrast_analysis (cor-rectedwiththeSidakequation)highlightedasignificantdifference betweenthevideoonbullyingandtheneutralvideo,F(1,31)=7.51, p<.01,␩2₌_.19,_and_a_significant_interaction_effect_between_the_type ofvideoandthevictimizationcondition,regardingthedifference betweentheprosocialandthecyberbullyingvideo,F(1,31)=3.38, p=.05,␩2₌_.10._The_{cyberbullying}_video_captured_more_the_early attentionalreactionofthosethat hadneverbeenbullied,while theoppositewastruefortheprosocialvideo.AnalyzingtheOC, thewithinsubjectstesthighlightedamain effectof thevideos, F(3,93)=6.54,p<.001,␩2₌_.17._A_planned_contrast_analysis (cor-rectedwiththeSidakequation)onthesamedatahighlighteda significantdifferencebetweenneutraland theprosocialvideos, F(1,31)=8.17,p<.01,␩2₌_.21,_and_between_the_prosocial_and_the cyberbullyingvideos,F(1,31)=11.61,p<.001,␩2₌_.27._The proso-cialvideohadthelowestnumberofobservations.

EmotionalResponses

Whitregardstothemainresults,themaineffectofthetypeof videowassigniﬁcantforseveralemotionalreactions,asdisplayed

inTable6.Whenconsideringthepairwisecomparisontests,higher levelsofangeranddisgustwereelicitedbythebullyingvideoin comparisontotheothervideos,and bythecyberbullyingvideo in comparisontotheprosocial andtheneutral videos.Bullying and cyberbullyingdidnotdifferfromeach otherfortheshame andblameemotions,butelicitedhigherlevelsoftheseemotions thantheotherpeer-interactions.Watchingbullyingsituationsalso caused higher sadness than watching neutral peer interactions andcyberbullying,which,inturn,elicitedsigniﬁcantlyhigher sad-nessemotionthanwitnessingneutralpeerinteractions.Bullying, butnotcyberbullying,alsocausedhigheremotionalresponsesof anxietythantheotherpeer-interactions.Lastly,amarginaleffect (p=.090)ofdespairappeared,whichwasduetothehigher emo-tionalresponseelicitedbythebullyingvideoincomparisontothe neutralone.

Severalsignificantmainandinteractioneffectsofbeinga vic-tim during the middle or high schoolalso appeared. First, the maineffectof havingbeenavictimwassignificantforthefear emotion but, partially unexpectedly, victimsscoredlower than non-victimsforthisemotionwhenwatchingpeerinteractions.The twowayeffectoftypeofvideoxhavingbeenavictimwas sig-nificantforanger,andthefollow-upANOVAsshowedthatwhen watchingcyberbullyingthevictimsscoredlowerthannon-victims, F(1,33)=9.86,p=.005,␩2₌_.23.

The three-way interaction effect of video x gender x hav-ing been a victim was signiﬁcant for blame and marginal for

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S.C.S. Caravita et al. / Psicología Educativa 22 (2016) 49–59 Table5

Study2:SummaryofANOVAIndexesforPhysiologicalIndexesandEyeMovementsaDependentVariables.

Firstﬁxationduration Observationcount Observationlength Skinconductancelevel Bloodvolumepulse Pressurevolume

amplitude Pulsefrequency F(df) ␩2 _F_(df) _␩2 _F_(df) _␩2 _F_(df) _␩2 _F_(df) _␩2 _F_(df) _␩2 _F_(df) _␩2 Video 2.134(3,93) .064 6.564(3,93)*** _.175 _2.193_(3,₉₃₎ _.066 _0.323_(3,₉₃₎ _.010 _0.007_(3,₉₃₎ _.000 _0.069_(3,₉₃₎ _.002 _0.017_(3,₉₃₎ _.001 Beingvictim 00.001(1,31) .001 0.356(1,31) .011 1.193(1,31) .037 0.005(1,31) .000 2.740(1,31) .081 0.143(1,31) .005 1.120(1,31) .035 Gender 8.908(1,31)** _.223 _0.028_(1,₃₁₎ _.001 _1.017_(1,₃₁₎ _.032 _0.126_(1,₃₁₎ _.004 _0.700_(1,₃₁₎ _.022 _0.066_(1,₃₁₎ _.002 _0.866_(1,₃₁₎ _.027

Videoxbeingvictim 1.502(3,93) .046 0.066(3,93) .002 0.225(3,93) .007 3.400(3,93)* _.099 _0.954_(3,₉₃₎ _.030 _0.299_(3,₉₃₎ _.010 _0.505_(3,₉₃₎ _.016

Videoxgender 0.277(3,93) .009 0.246(3,93) .008 0.564(3,93) .018 0.700(3,93) .022 0.201(3,93) .006 1.224(3,93) .038 0.091(3,93) .003

Beingvictimxgender 0.812(1,31) .026 0.054(1,31) .002 0.169(1,31) .005 0.034(1,31) .001 0.002(1,31) .000 1.848(1,31) .056 0.287(1,31) .009

Videoxbeingvictimxgender 1.321(3,93) .041 0.328(3,93) .010 1.262(3,93) .039 3.051(3,93)* _.090 _0.286_(3,₉₃₎ _.009 _2.581_(3,₉₃₎† _.077 _0.990_(3,₉₃₎ _.031

† _p_<_.10 *_p_<_.05 **_p_<_.01 ***_p_<_.001

Table6

Study2:SummaryofANOVAIndexesforEmotionsasDependentVariables.

Anger Fear Sadness Disgust Blame Shame Anxiety Despair

F(df) ␩2 _F(df) _␩2 _F(df) _␩2 _F(df) _␩2 _F(df) _␩2 _F(df) _␩2 _F(df) _␩2 _F(df) _␩2 Video 40.423***_(3,₉₃₎ _.566 _1.822_(3,₉₃₎ _.056 _12.388***_(3,₉₃₎ _.286 _24.748***_(3,₉₃₎ _.444 _5.317**_(3,₉₃₎ _.146 _15.275***_(3,₉₃₎ _.330 _4.333**_(3,₉₃₎ _.123 _2.197†_(3,₉₃₎ _.066 Beingvictim 4.115*_(1,₃₁₎ _.117 _5.577*_(1,₃₁₎ _.152 _3.231†_(1,₃₁₎ _.094 _0.561_(1,₃₁₎ _.018 _2.839_(1,₃₁₎ _.084 _4.869*_(1,₃₁₎ _.136 _4.725*_(1,₃₁₎ _.132 _2.187_(1,₃₁₎ _.066 Gender 0.518(1,31) .016 0.037(1,31) .001 0.042(1,31) .001 3.857†_(1,₃₁₎ _.111 _0.116_(1,₃₁₎ _.004 _0.284_(1,₃₁₎ _.009 _1.101_(1,₃₁₎ _.034 _7.560**_(1,₃₁₎ _.196 Videoxbeing victim 3.676*_(3,₉₃₎ _.106 _1.346_(3,₉₃₎ _.042 _1.874_(3,₉₃₎ _.057 _1.804_(3,₉₃₎ _.055 _1.324_(3,₉₃₎ _.041 _2.225†_(3,₉₃₎ _.067 _0.526_(3,₉₃₎ _.017 _2.080_(3,₉₃₎ _.063 Videoxgender 0.338(3,93) .011 1.455(3,93) .045 2.250†_(3,₉₃₎ _.068 _1.099_(3,₉₃₎ _.034 _1.355_(3,₉₃₎ _.042 _0.766_(3,₉₃₎ _.024 _1.446_(3,₉₃₎ _.045 _0.647_(3,₉₃₎ _.020 Beingvictimx gender 1.186(1,31) .037 2.389(1,31) .072 0.257(1,31) .008 0.186(1,31) .006 2.752(1,31) .082 2.198(1,31) .066 1.519(1,31) .047 1.744(1,31) .053 Videoxbeing victimx gender 0.090(3,93) .003 0.553(3,93) .018 0.235(3,93) .008 1.389(3,93) .043 4.043**_(3,₉₃₎ _.115 _1.512_(3,₉₃₎ _.047 _2.392†_(3,₉₃₎ _.072 _1.633_(3,₉₃₎ _.050 † _p_<_.10 *_p_<_.05 **_p_<_.01 ***_p_<_.001

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anxiety.Infollow-upANOVAs,amongboysvictimsreported signif-icantlowerblamethannon-victimswhenwatchingbullying,F(1, 12)=9.24,p=.01,␩2₌_.44,_and_{cyberbullying,}_F(1,₁₂₎₌_9.52,_p_<_.05, ␩2₌_.44)._No_signiﬁcant_differences_emerged_among_girls._Lastly, cyberbullyingalsoelicitedlowerlevelsofanxietyinvictimsthan non-victimsamongboys,F(1,12)=11.17,p=.01,␩2₌_.48.

Discussion

SCLdataderivedfromtheyoungadultssampleseemstobe con-tradictory,sincethevictimsshowedloweraverageSCLinresponse tobullyingandcyberbullyingvideos.Ifitistruethat,asweargued before,SCLcanbeusedasreliableindexforthelevelofstress,itis alsotruethataverageSCLismorerelatedtocognitionalresponse, and maximumSCL and risingtime tomaximum amplitudeare morerelatedtoemotionalresponsesinyoungadultsandadults (Leeetal.,2010).Followingthislineofreasoning,thefactthatwe usedtheaveragedSCLvalues couldexplainthecounterintuitive results.Futurestudiesshoulduselongervideosthatallowstudying differencesinSCLpeaks.

Behavioraldata highlighted someexpected results (bullying andcyberbullyingvideoselicitedmoreactiveresponsesoverall) but also an interesting pattern for earlyattentional responses. Apparently,victimstendtodivergetheirearlyattentionalresponse frombullyingandcyberbullyingvideos.Thisdataiscoherentwith thefactthatvictimsshowedlowerSCLlevels–itispossiblethat overall, being more familiar with the situation and being able toanticipatethenegativeemotionalreactions,victimstendedto avoidfocusingtheirattentiontothekeyscenesearlyon.Studies onattentionlocationshowedthatnegativeemotionspredictearly attentionallocationbutwithincongruentstimuli(Lietal.,2014), whileourvideosonbullyingandcyberbullyingwerecongruentand predictable.

Whenconsideringtheself-reportofemotionalreactions,a simi-larpatternrelatedtohavebeenvictimizedappeared.Incomparison tonon-victims,victimsreportedlowerlevelsoffear,regardlessthe typeofvideo,andofangerwhenwatchingcyberbullying.These resultssuggestthatamongyoungadults,victimsmayusedefence and coping mechanism of avoidancetocontrol for allnegative emotionsrelatedtopeer,andespeciallycyberbullyingsituations. Intheoverallsample,watchingbullyingandcyberbullying situ-ationselicitedhigherlevelsofnegativeemotionsthanwitnessing prosocialorneutralsituations.Buttheexposuretobullyingelicited higherlevelsofanger,disgust,andsadnessthanthevisionof cyber-bullying.Itseemsthatoff-linebullyingmorethancyberbullying elicitsinwitnessesemotions,whicharenegativebutalso poten-tially able tomotivate to intervene,such as anger and disgust (Barhightetal.,2013).

Conclusions

Thisresearchprojectcontributestotheliteratureonemotional impactofcyberbullyinginvictimsandinyoungpeople,regardless ofbeingvictimized,byassessingemotionalresponsesto cyberbul-lyingsituations,incomparisontobullyingandothertypesofpeer interactions.Besidesself-reports,alsophysiological(Study1and 2)andbehavioral(Study2)datawerecollected,whicharemore precisemeasuresforstress,andemotionalandcognitivereactions. Victimsvs.Non-Victims

Resultson physiologicalindexes fromStudy 1 indicatethat, amongadolescents,victimsandnon-victimsdidnotdifferinthe levels of stress elicited by the exposure to cyberbullying and bullying.Nevertheless,watchingcyberbullyingsituationsactually

elicitshigherstressthanwitnessingotherpeerinteractions, includ-ing bullying,among victimized boysbut not among victimized girls.Whenconsideringself-reportsofemotions,i.e.,thepersonal perceptionoffeelings,adolescentswhohavebeenbullied,in com-parison tonon-victims, reportedto experiencehigher fear and sadnesswhenwatchingcyberbullyingsituations,whereasvictims andnon-victimsdidnotdifferintheiremotionalexperiencewhen watchingbullying.Hence,cyberbullyingmaybefeltbyadolescent victimsasascaringexperience.Thisisinlinewiththeliterature reportingthatfeelingsofsadnessandfeararemoretypicalof cyber-victims(Giménez-Gualdo,Hunter, Durking,Arnaiz, &Maquilón, 2015).However,ourresultsalsoindicatethatcyberbullyingisnot morestressingandemotionalthantraditionalbullyingforallthe victims.Thisoutcomesupportsonlypartiallythehypothesisthat electronicbullyingelicitshigherstressinvictimsandcanhavea worsenegativeemotionalimpactthannon-ICTbullying.Itislikely thatdifferentclustersofvictimsneedtobedistinguished,aligned withtheliteratureshowingthattheemotionalimpactofbeing bul-liedorcyberbullied isnotidenticalforalltheadolescents,with someadolescentswhoarenotupsetbycyberbullyingorbythe tra-ditionalbullying(Ortegaetal.,2009).Furthermore,wedidneither examineemotionalreactionstotheexposuretoindirectbullying, i.e.,bullyingwhichisperpetratedbymeansofsocialexclusion,or relationalandlessexplicitattacks(e.g.,Ortega&Mora-Merchán, 2008),nordistinguishedbetweenvictimsofdirectorindirect bul-lying.Recentliteraturesuggeststhatstudyingtheemotionalimpact ofICTbullyingincomparisontobothformsoftraditionalbullying (Horner,Asher,&Fireman,2015)canberelevant,andindicatesthat theemotionalresponsestocyberbullyingaremoresimilartothe responsestotheindirectformsofbullyingthantothereactionsto directbullying(Ortegaetal.,2009).Followingthislineofresearch, itispossiblethat,ifexaminingstressandtheemotionaloutcomes ofcyberbullyingincomparisontoindirectanddirectformsof bul-lying,differentoverlapsoftheconsequenceselicitedbythesethree formsofvictimizationcanemerge.

Amongyoungadults(Study 2),wefoundadifferentpattern ofresults,whichmayimplypossibleage-relateddifferences.Also inthissampletheexposuretocyberbullyingdidnotelicithigher stress invictims, asassessed byphysiological indexes, in com-parisontobullying.Furthermore,surprisingly, adultswho were victimizedduringtheirschoolyearsshowedlowerlevelsof acti-vation, i.e.,lowerstress, thannon-victims whenwatching both cyberbullyingand bullyingsituations,andreportedlowerlevels ofnegativeemotions(anger,sadnessand,amongboys,anxiety), whenwatchingcyberbullyingsituations.Itmayduetothefactthat theseyouthsufferedmorefacetofacebullyingthancyberbullying atschool.However,whenconsideringthatingeneralyoungadults whowerevictimizedatschoolreportedlowerlevelsofemotion thanpeers(seeTable3),itisalsopossiblethattheseyouthhave developedakindofresignationtowhathappenincyberbullying andbullying,andmorenegativeexpectationsaboutthepossibility ofhavingpositiveinteractionswithpeers.Thisexplanationagrees withtheliteraturesuggestingthatvictimsofbullyingdevelop spe-ciﬁcrelationalschemata,whichwouldfavortheanticipationthat bullying will probablyhappen during peerinteractions (Rosen, Milich,&Harris,2007).Whenwatchingpeersinteracting,victims mayanticipatethatthesituationwilldevelopinbullyingandfeel lowlevelsofemotionsbecausetheyexpectthisoutcome.Another possibilityisthatthisoutcomemirrorstheassociationsexisting betweenbeingvictimizedbypeersanddevelopingexternallocus ofcontrolmechanismsanddepressivesymptoms.Studiesindicate thatbulliedchildrenandadolescentsshowhigherlevelsof exter-nalityofthelocusofcontrol,relatedinparticulartothedomain ofrelationshipswithpeers(Caravita,2007).Thisexternallocusof controlmayleadtodevelopingfeelingsoflearntimpotenceinthe relationshipswithpeers,andislikelytobeassociatedtohigher

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depressivesymptoms(Klomek,Marrocco,Kleinman,Schonfeld,& Gould,2007).Sufferingmorefromdepressivesymptoms,victims arealsolikelytobelessemotionallyreactive.Thismechanismmay beevidentinadults (Study2)andnotinadolescents(Study1), becauseadolescentsarestillfacingbullyingandmayhavenotfully developedthesefeelingsandsymptoms,which,onthecontrary, mayappearinadults.

Consideringthehigherexternalityofthelocusofcontrolthat istypicalofvictims,thefeelingthatthesituationisunchangeable isassociatedtohigheruseofemotion-focusedcoping(Olafssen& Johansdottir,2004;Zapf&Gross,2001),suchasavoidance cop-ing.Accordingly,wefoundthatbullyingandcyberbullyingvideos elicitedmorecognitivelyactiveresponses,butadultvictimshad lowercognitiveprocessingandespeciallydelayedattentional allo-cation when watching bullying and cyberbullying videos. This behaviormaymirroratendencyofvictimstodistancefromthe bullyingsituations.Whenstartingtowitnessepisodesof poten-tialbullyingorcyberbullying,thecognitiveschemataofthevictims (Rosenetal.,2007)anticipatethedevelopmentofthesituationand thevictimstendtodivergefromadirectconfrontationwiththe sit-uationbydivergingtheirattention.Lastly,thereducedemotional responseofvictimsintheadultsamplemightalsomirrorresilience processes(e.g.,Schwartz,Proctor,&Chien,2001),whichmayhave helpedvictimsofbullying,atleasttosomeextent,todevelopbetter emotionregulationmechanismsovertimethantheonesexpressed bytheadolescentvictims.

EmotionalImpactofTypeofVideoonYouth

Partiallyaccordingtoourhypothesis,regardlessoftheroleof involvementinbullying,inbothstudiesthecyberbullyingandthe bullyingvideoselicited higherlevelsofphysiologicalactivation, behavioralattention(Study2),andnegativeemotionsthanother peerinteractions.Nevertheless,cyberbullyingdidnotcausehigher stressornegativeemotionalresponsesthanbullying.Itmayhave happenedbecauseface-to-facebullyingisperceivedasmore seri-ousthancyberbullyingandmayalsomirroreasieruseofmoral disengagementmechanisms(e.g.,Caravita,Sijtsema,Rambaran,& Gini,2014),suchasminimizingseriousnessoftheaction conse-quencesorblamingthevictimforcyberbullyingsituationsthan bullyingsituations.Such moraldisengagementmechanismscan alsoworkforbystanders(Obermann,2011), and maylead wit-nessestoempathizelesswiththevictimofcyberbullyingthanthe victimofface-to-facebullying,becausenegativeconsequencesof bullyingandvictim’spainaremoreexplicitinthecaseoftraditional bullying.

LimitationsandFutureDirections

Therearesomelimitationsinthisresearchproject.First, sam-plessizeswereappropriatefortestingdifferencesacrossgroupsfor thephysiologicalandthebehavioralindexes(e.g.Barhightetal., 2013),butleadtointerprettheresultsfortheself-reportmeasures more cautiously. Nevertheless, some signiﬁcant differences in self-reportedemotionsappeared,thus supportingthestrengths oftheseeffects.Asecondlimitationwasduetotheretrospective natureofStudy2.Thedecisiontoinvolveayoungadultsample wasmainlyduetothetechnicalcharacteristicsoftheeye-tracker weused,whichisrecommendedtobeusedwithadultsforbetter accuracy.Futurestudiestestingeyemovementswithadolescent samplesmayconﬁrmourresults.Anotherlimitationwasthatdue tothesizeofthesampleswecouldnotdistinguishamonggroups ofvictims,basedonbeingvictimizedincyberspace,face-to-face, or both ways. Lastly, the emotional reactionsto cyberbullying could only be tested by exposing victims and non-victims to

videos representing such peer interactions. This method was dictatedbytheimpossibilitytoassessphysiologicalindexesand eyemovementsin actualcyberbullyingand bullyingsituations, and it assumes that participantsidentiﬁed with the situations representedinthevideosandreactedaccordingly.However,the useofasimilarmethodologyinatleastanotherstudyonbullying (Barhightetal.,2013)givessomesupporttotheappropriateness of this choice. Besides these limitations, this study is the ﬁrst toinvestigatetheemotionalimpactofcyberbullyingbydirectly assessing psychophysiologicaland behavioral indexes, (i.e.,one of the most precise assessment of distress, and cognitive and emotionalreactions).Findingsfromthisstudyclearlyindicatethat beingexposedtocyberbullyingcausesstressandnegative emo-tionsinwitnesses,andinadolescentvictimsofbullying,providing someevidencethatcyberbullyingisapossibleriskfactorforthe healthofyouthwhoareexposedtothisformofaggression.

ConﬂictofInterest

Theauthorsofthisarticledeclarenoconﬂictofinterest.

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