A rainfall data analysis for the archeological drawing of the Augustan aqueduct route

A

rainfall

data

analysis

for

the

archeological

drawing

of

the

Augustan

aqueduct

route

Francesco

De

Paola

_,

_Maurizio

_Giugni

_,

_Maria

_Emanuela

_Cornacchia

_,

Giovanni

Libralato

_,

_Giusy

_Lofrano

a_{Departmentofcivil,architecturalandenvironmentalengineering,universityofNaples“FedericoII”,21,viaClaudio,80125Naples,Italy} b_{TBCGénérateurd’innovation,25,boulevardVictor-Hugo,31770Colomiers,France}

c_{Departmentofenvironmentalsciences,informaticsandstatistics,universityCàFoscariVenice,2737/b,campodellaCelestia,30122Venice,Italy} d_{Departmentofchemistryandbiology,universityofSalerno,132,viaGiovanniPaoloII,84084Fisciano(Sa),Italy}

e_{Instituteofmethodologiesforenvironmentalanalysis,nationalresearchcouncil(CNRIMAA),C.daS.LojaZ.I.TitoScalo,85050Potenza,Italy}

a

r

t

i

c

l

e

i

n

f

o

Received24September2015 Accepted25January2016 Availableonline12February2016 Keywords: Cumae Naples Romanbath Augustanaqueduct Watersupply

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WasCumaesuppliedbythecollectionofrainwater,widelypracticedforlongtimeintheMediterranean area,orbyabranchoftheAugustanAqueduct?ThemaingoalofAquaAugustawastoprovidewaterto Puteoli(civilian)andMisenum(military)thatweretwoofthemainharborsoftheEmpire.However,the ruinsofthebranchthatwouldhaveflowedthroughCumaehavenotbeenexcavatedyet.Theaqueduct structurehasnotbeenstudiedindetailduetothedifficultyininspectingandthemissingarches.A rainfalldataanalysiswascarriedouttoassesstheflowanduseofthewaterconveyedbytheAqua AugustaaqueducttoCumae.ResultsindicatedthatrainwaterwasnotsufficienttosupplyCumaeandthe AquaAugustashouldhaveplayedagreatroleindeliveringwatertothecity.

©2016ElsevierMassonSAS.Allrightsreserved.

1. Introduction

Traditionally, the archaeology of water has been formerly focusedontheaestheticandarchitectural features ofhydraulic worksratherthanontechnicalandmechanicalaspects[1].Over thecenturies,civilizationsdevelopedstructurestobringdrinking watertothepopulationcenters,especiallythroughtheuseof aque-ducts.Therearemanyhistoricalrecordsonthepurposeanddesign ofaqueducts.Manyoftheseaqueducts,thoughthousandsofyears old,arestillstanding[2].Althoughthecrucialimportanceofwater iswellknown,watersupplyhasnotbeenconsideredasparticularly interesting[3–5].Thegreatbridgesconstituteanexceptionlikethe longarcadesofRomanaqueducts,which continuetoenrichthe landscapeofcountrysideandcitiesallaroundEurope(e.g. Pont-du-Gard,France). Surprisingly, engineering and aestheticissues were alwayseffectively conjugated. Whenever possible Roman engineersfollowed,thesteadydownhillcourseat/orbelowground levelforconstructingaqueducts[6–9].Rome’saqueduct system

∗ Correspondingauthor.Tel.:+393397117349;Fax:+390815938936. E-mailaddresses:[email protected](F.DePaola),[email protected] (M.E. Cornacchia), [email protected] (G. Libralato), [email protected], [email protected](G.Lofrano).

wasundergroundbyapproximately87%[3].Manyofthesesections weredeeptunneledthroughlimestoneandtufarock.Otherswere excavatedintothehillsidewithanengineeredrockand mortar tunnelsetintotheexcavationandthenbackfilledwiththenative soil[10–12].Thus,thestudyoftheirroutesisnotaneasytaskto carryout,asinthecaseofthedouble-branchedAugustan Aque-duct(AquaAugusta)builtinCampaniaRegionbetween20and30 AD[13].TheformerbranchgushedfromthespringofSerinolocated intheTerminio-TuoroMountaintakingwateruptoBenevento.The otherbranchoriginatedat“Acquaro-Pelosi”,stillfromSerinospring, feedingMisenum[11].Theformerandalmostentirelyunderground branchwas103kmlonghavingmanysecondarybranchesbeing 60kmlong.AsectionofAquaAugusta,thelongestaqueductofthe RomanEmpire[12],wasbroughttolightinFebruary 2012bya landslideoccurredafteraheavysnowfall[14].Thefirsthistorical surveyofitsopen-airrouteandthedeep-tunneledsectionswas carriedoutbyAbate[15]inordertoassessthepossibilityofusing theancienttunnelsforanewaqueductsupplyingtheCityofNaples. Nowadays,thestudyoftheoriginalrouteoftheaqueductcannot beconsideredconcluded.Unfortunately,theAquaAugustahasnot beensufficientlyinvestigatedforthefollowingreasons:

• thestructureismostlyundergroundandinspectionsaredifficult; • itisnotconsideredofarchitecturalinterest.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2016.01.006

396 F.DePaolaetal./JournalofCulturalHeritage19(2016)395–401

Fig.1.LocationofCumaealongtherouteoftheAugustanaqueductfromSerinotoMiseno. AdoptedfromDeFeoetal.[31].

Aninscription,attestingitsrepairatthetimeofConstantinethe Great(324/326AD),indicatedthattheaqueductservedthecities ofPuteoli,Neapolis,Nola,Atella,Cumae,Acerrae,BaiaMisenumand thecoastalcitiesofVesuvius(PompeiandHercolanum).Theruinsof thisbranchflowingthroughCumaehavenotbeenexcavatedyet, sothereisnorealproofofitsroute[11].

Cumae(Cumaarcheologicalsite, No.40.848356,E14.054078) islocatedonthenorthernedgeofCampiFlegrei(Naples, Campa-niaRegion,Italy),facingsouthandparalleltotheDomitiancoast (Fig.1).

ThesettlementwasestablishedbyGreekcolonistsintheVIII CenturyBCE,sackedbyOscansintheVCenturyBCEand incorpo-ratedintotheRomanEmpireintheIVCenturyBCE[16].Nowadays, themostcelebratedsiteatCumaeistheSybil’sCave,the Archaeo-logicalParkhouses,aseriesofancientruinsandartefacts,including twoRomanbathsandvarioustunnelsandcisterns.Bathswere pop-ularplacesofmassresortand thefirstsanitary facilities,being standardequipmentinmodernhouses,buttheywereoftennot includedinancient romandwellings.ThemainscopeofRoman aqueducts was to fed baths continually [3]. Manderscheid [7] assumedthatsincethethermalbathswerelocatedoutsidecities, accomodationsforhousingandfeedingpatientsmusthavebeen furnished.Accordingtohim,sincetherelativetemperaturesofthe springsvaryconsiderablybetween26◦Cand70◦C,theremusthave beensomeprovisionsforcoolingthewaterdowntoatemperature whichwasbeneficialorperhapscomfortabletothehumanbody. Indeed,inonlyaveryfewcaseswouldthewaterhave automati-callycooledoffsufficientlyonitswayfromthesourcetothebathing pools.Thearcheologyevidencerevealstwopossibilities:

• aninstallationofcoolingintowhichthewaterwouldflowbefore beingintroducedintothepiscinae;

• themixingofhotthermalwaterwithfreshwaterwhichhave mustbeentransportedseparatelyoverarelativelylongdistance bymeansofanaqueduct.

Theuseofcisternswasverycommoninromanbaths[17].For instance,intheBathsofCaracalla(Rome),waterwassuppliedby theAquaNovaAntoninianaandAquaMarciaaqueductsandlocal springsandstoredin18 cisternsuringbathtime,peoplegathered dailytheirsociallifeinaninformalcontextdrinkingwineand hav-ingsexualrelationships.Despitetheeventualmoraldisapproval, thepopularityofbathsenduredforoveramillenniumandspread allovertheRomantime[18,19].

Theaimofthispaperistoinvestigatethehypothesisthat rain-waterwasnottheonlywatersourceforCumae.Astatisticalanalysis ofrainfalldatawascarriedoutovera2000-yearperiodestimating thewaterdemandinCumae.Theanalysisconsideredthatbetween

I-IICenturiesADCumaeexperiencedanincreasedwaterdemand due to a great economic, culturaland social growth.Based on thereliefoftheCumaeForumbathoperatedbytheauthors,two fundamentalhypothesisaboutCumaewatersupplysystemwere assessed:

• thecollectionofrainwater,whichhadbeenpracticedforlong timeintheMediterraneanarea[19–21];

• thehistorical recordsof a branch of theAugustan Aqueduct, whichwouldhavereachedthecity[22].

2. Methodologicalapproach

Inordertodeterminewhethertheforumcisternwassupplied withrainwater,theaverageannualrainfallinCumaewasinferred intheI CenturyADusinghydrologicaldatafromthe1916–1999 annalsassumingtemporal recurringrainfall events.De Martino etal.[23]suppliedfurtherdatafortheperiod2000–2006.Thereare nodataavailablebefore1916.Therainfallstationschosenforthe analysiswerelocatedalongtheborderofCumaethatisPozzuoli, NaplesCapodimonte(Observatory),Camaldoli(Hermitage),Ischia (Forio)orIschia(Porto)andLicola.Rainfalleventsrangedbetween 408mm(1957)and1383mm(1979).

Duetothecomplexityofthemonthlyrainfallanalysisandlack ofhistorical data,rainfallestimation wasworkedoutusingthe valueoftheaveragerainfallsinferredbyanexponential smooth-ingstatespace modelstarting fromtheaverageannualrainfall between1916and2006.Thismodelusedathree-characterstring identifyingtheframework terminology of Hyndmanand Khan-dakar[24] throughR package forecast.By usingZZZ asdefault values,themodelautomaticallyselectedthebestmodel(Additive orMultiplicative)fortheerror,trendandseasonalityoftherainfall series.Twoautomaticforecastingalgorithmswereimplemented intheforecastpackage forR[24].Thefirstoneisbasedonthe innovationstatespacemodelsthatunderlieexponential smooth-ingmethods.Thesecondisastep-wiseforecastingalgorithmwith Autoregressiveintegratedmovingaverage(ARIMA)modelthatisa generalizationofanautoregressivemovingaverage(ARMA)model. Thesemodelsarefittedtotimeseriesdataeithertobetter under-standthedataortopredictfuturepointsintheseries(forecasting). Thealgorithmsareapplicabletobothseasonalandnon-seasonal data.Inordertoobtainarobustandwidelyapplicableautomatic forecastingalgorithm,wefollowedthefollowingsteps:

• applicationofallmodelsforeachseriesoptimizingthe parame-ters(bothsmoothingparametersandtheinitialstatevariable)of themodelineachcase;

Fig.2.Topographicsurveyofforumbath.

• selectionofthebestmodelaccordingtotheAkaike’sinformation criterion,ameasureoftherelativequalityofstatisticalmodels foragivensetofdata;

• pointforecastingusingthebestmodel(withoptimized parame-ters)forasmanystepsaheadasrequired;

• obtainthepredictionintervalsforthebestmodeleither simulat-ingfuturesamplepathsusingthenormaldistributionforerrors (parametricbootstrapthatisthepracticeofestimating proper-tiesofanestimator(suchasitsvariance)bymeasuringthose propertieswhensamplingfromanapproximatingdistribution).

3. Resultsanddiscussion

3.1. Routeassessment 3.1.1. Forumbathdescription

Cumae hosted the Forum bath and the smaller Republican Romanbath,known astheCentral Romanbathor, improperly, named the“Tombof theSibyl” [16]. A topographicalsurvey of theForum bath isshown in Fig. 2.Its construction dated back toatime ofintensebuildingactivity,whichoccurredinCumae somedecades afterthe construction of viaDomitiana (95 AD). Atthattime,theCentralRomanbathwasalreadypresentinthe city centre.The construction ofthe Forum bathsuggested that thepopulationincreasedaswellas thevisitorsfor commercial purposesmainlyduetothepresenceoftheportarealinkedtovia

Domitiana,allowingafastconnectiontoRome,withouttheneed toreachviaAppia[21].

TheForumbath,whichremainsareshowninFig.3a,waslocated inthelowerpartofthecity.Itfacedwest,mostlikelytotakethe advantageofabetterinsolationatallhours[16].Thetwopublic entrancesareshowninFig.2:

• theeastentrancewaslocatednearbytheintersectionwiththe roadtowardstheForum,along thenorthernsideofthe Capi-tolium;

• thevestibuleentranceleadtothefrigidariumpassingthrougha sceniccolonnade(Fig.3b).

Thefrigidariumwascharacterisedbythepresenceofcoldpools. Largewindowsallowednaturallighting.Ontherightandleftsides ofthevestibule,twopublicspaceswerepresentservingasdressing roomsandforadditionalactivitiessuchasmassagesand anoint-ingbeforeenteringthebath.Southward,asmallroomservedas acorridorpreventingheatlossaswellashotrooms.Thepoolsfor immersionshowedinFig.4wereonthenorth,southandwestsides oftheserooms.

Thebathcontainedfivepools:

• two poolsinthefrigidariumlabelled D1 (31 m2,water depth

1.4m,volume43.4m3_)andD

2(21m2,waterdepth1.4m,volume

29.4m3_{)accessiblethroughashortstaircase(Fig.4);}

Fig.3. (a)Remainsofforumbath;(b)eastentranceofbathandfrigidarium. Picturestakenbytheauthors.

398 F.DePaolaetal./JournalofCulturalHeritage19(2016)395–401

Fig.4. Poolsbelongingtothefrigidarium–D1andD2fromFig.1. Picturestakenbytheauthors.

Fig.5.(a)Tubuli;(b)Suspensurae. Picturestakenbytheauthors.

• threeinsidethecalidariumidentifiedI3 (12.5 m2,waterdepth

1.4m,volume17.5m3_),I

4(14.5 m2,waterdepth1.4m,volume

20.3m3_),I

5(13.5m2,waterdepth1.4m,volume18.9m3).

TheorderoftheroomsfollowedtheusualsequenceofRoman baths:tepidarium(mediumtemperature,Fig.2[F]),sudatio(fordry heatbath,Fig.1[G]),andcalidarium(hightemperature,Fig.2[H]). Theheatproducedbywoodcombustionwasconveyedfromthe praefurnium(Fig.2[L])throughouttheabove-mentionedseriesof roomsthankstothetubuli,whichwasasystemofcavitiesalong thewallsmadeofterracottaorbrickpipes(Fig.5a).Thedecking, lowerthanthatoftheadjacentrooms,wasatthesamelevelof thepraefurnium,withsomeopeningsatthesamelevelcalledthe suspensurae,whichwerepartofthefloorheatingsystem(Fig.5b). Theywerecoatedwitha15cmthicklayerofwaterproofplaster madeoflimemortarmixedwithsandorpozzolanaandshardsof brick[16].

Acistern,placedonapedestalinthenorthwestcornerofthe bath,suppliedwater.Thepedestalwaslocatedabout2 moverthe baseofthepoolstofacilitatethedistributionofwater.Thecistern, originallydividedintofourtanks,wasorientatedinawayslightly differentfromthatofthemaincomplex.Fromtheruins’ investiga-tion,thecisternwas15mlong,13mwidthand4.5mdepth(Fig.6). Itsperimeterwallhadathicknessgreaterthanthatoftherestof theRomanbath(minimumthicknessof1m),whilethepartition wallsbetweentankswerethinner.Thewallswereprimarily com-posedofopusreticulatum,interruptedathalfheightbyeightrows ofopuslatericium(Fig.6),coveredwithathicklayerofover15cm thickimpermeableplaster.Theplasterformedthepiercapsatthe cornersbetweenthewallandthefloor,accordingtoatechnical solutioncommontoboththeancientcisternsandmoderntanks.

Thecisternof thebathintheForumoperatedasa castellum aquae,sinceitwaspositionedabout2mhigherthanthebottomof thepools.Thenetareaofthecisternwasabout150m2_;assuming

aninteriorwaterlevelof3.50m,itcouldhavecontainedabout525 m3_{ofwater.Theassumptionofconsideringaninteriorwaterdepth}

of3.5mfromthetotalheightofthecistern(4.5m)wasadopted onthebaseofestimatedliteraturevalues[25].Thetotalareaand volumeof thepoolswere92.5 m2 _{and129.5 m}3_{,respectively.}

Therefore,thecisternvolumewasaboutfourtimesgreaterthan theamountofwaternecessarytofillthepools.

3.1.2. Rainfalldataanalysis

Resultsfromtherainfallinferenceanalysissuggestedthat: • generally,arainyyearfollowedadrierone;

• annualvaluesfluctuatedinaperiodicwaywithanaverageof 825mmofrainfall(Fig.7).

Fig.6.Cisternfeedingthepools. Picturestakenbytheauthors(NinFig.1).

Fig.7.CumulativeannualrainfallsinCumaeregion;0-1916generatedwithastatisticalanalysis,inthelastperiod(1916–2006),theconfidencelevelsof80and90%are reportedwiththeobserveddata[24].

Consideringthe hypothesisof rainwateruseand takinginto accountanaverageannualrainfallof825mm,thetotal average watervolumethatcouldhavebeenpotentiallyaccumulatedper yearinthecisternwas:

V=Sc•hm=150•0.825=123.75 m3 (1)

whereScisthenetareaofthecisternandhmtheavergeofrainfall.

Themaximumwatervolumewas207.48m3_{(withanincreaseof}

about67%!)consideringtherainiestyear.

Thus, these volumeswere insufficienteven to fill thepools onceperyear.Thestatisticalhydrologicalanalysisofrainfalldata overaround2000 years (Fig.8)showedthereconstructeddata between0and1916withaforecastconfidencelevelof80%and 90%(Fig.6)harvestingrainfalldatawithin1916–2006(Fig.8).The maximumforecastedvalueofthecumulativeannualprecipitation wasapproximately1,800mm;therefore,nomorethanonetankof 270m3_{/yearcouldhavebeenfilled.Althoughroofrun-offcouldbe}

conveyedtothetank,itscontributionwasnegligiblecomparedto thetotalvolume.

Asaconsequence,therainfallanalysisconfutedthe hypothe-sisoftheexclusiveuseofrainwater,suggestingthattheAugustan AqueductsuppliedCumae.

3.2. Flowassessment

The number of Cumae inhabitants during the first and sec-ondcenturiesADisunknowntohistoriansorarchaeologists.The availablerecordsdidnotprovideaccuratedataforthehistorical referenceperiodandmostofthetownwerenotexcavated.Thus, acalculationofthedailyflowbasedontheavailablewatersupply percapitaandthenumberofinhabitantsisnotpossible.

DataderivedfromthecharacteristicsofRomanbathandthe volumeofcisternswasusedtodeterminebothbaths’water con-sumptionand thepotentialdailynumber ofvisitors [30].From thesevalues,aroughestimationofthenumberofpeoplepresentin Cumaeandtheflowdeliveredfromtheaqueducttothecityresulted feasible.

Assumingthatthebathswereopenuntilsunset,adaily func-tioning of 12h is plausible.The total submersion time of each

400 F.DePaolaetal./JournalofCulturalHeritage19(2016)395–401

personintothepoolsisestimatedtobeanhour(frigidariumand calidarium).Ifeachpersonoccupiedanaveragesurfaceareaof0.36 m2_{(assumingasquarewithsidesof0.60m),increasingthevalueof}

30%,eachpersoncouldoccupyaminimumareaof0.47m2_inside

thepools.Sincethetotalareaofthepoolsis92.5m2_,amaximum

of198peoplecouldbesimultaneouslypresent.

Assumingthat160l(0.16m3_{)ofwaterwereusedperdayfor}

personalcare,thenecessaryexchangeofwater everyhour, cor-respondingto31.62 m3_{,wasobtainedbymultiplyingthewater}

volumenecessaryforeachperson/bath(160 l/d)bythenumber ofusersthatcouldhavebeensimultaneouslypresentinthepools oftheForumofCumae.Multiplyingthenumberofpeoplepresent atthesametimewithin12hofbathoperation,thetotalnumber ofuserswasequalto2372.Thedailywaterflownecessaryforthe Romanbathfunction,inferredfromthesevalues,correspondedto 379.49m3_{/d,i.e.4.39l/s.ThecisternoftheForumbath,therefore,}

withavolumeof525m3_{ofwater,wassufficienttosupplywater}

forabout1 day.Basedontheaforementioneddata,Cumaecould hostmorethan2000inhabitants.Thebathscouldattenda max-imumof2372 usersperday,whichwaspartlycomposedofthe visitorsparticipatingincitytrade.

Thepercapitawatersupplywasevaluatedconsideringtwo ref-erencevalues:

• thevalueofquinaria;

• thepercapitawatersupplyofPompeii[11].

AccordingtoDiFenizio[26]andRodgers[27],aquinaria cor-respondedtoaflow rateof 0.48 l/s.Pompeiihad about12,000 inhabitantsandthedaily flowrate(calculatedaccordingtothe new conduits) wasequal to 6460 m3_{/d.The per capita water}

supply of Pompeii correspondingto 0.54 m3_{/dper person was}

obtainedbydividingthedailyflowratebythenumberof inhabi-tants[25].

Thedifferencebetweenthetwovaluesisundoubtedlydueto thefact that the quinaria takes intoaccount only the personal consumptionofwaterwhereasthevalueforthecityofPompeii wascalculatedastheratio betweentheoverallscopes andthe number of inhabitants – including the water used for domes-tic purposes,for publicpurposes and fordecorative ponds and fountains.

Ithasbeenestimatedthat10,000sailorsand10,000 civilians constitutedthepopulationofMisenum.These20,000peoplewould havehadthesamepercapitawatersupplycalculatedforPompeii, i.e.0.54 m3_{/dperperson.Thedailyflowshouldhavebeen10,767}

m3_{/d,i.e.125l/s.Thisflowofwaterwouldhaverequiredmorethan}

adaytoreplenishthePiscinaMirabilis.

Anotherknown datum is that the total populationof Nola, Acerra,Atella,Naples,Pozzuoli,Cumae,BaiaandMisenum,inthefirst centuryAD,exceeded200,000people[22],excludingPompeiiand Herculaneum,which,atthetime,hadrespectively12,000and5000 inhabitants[28].

ThetotalpopulationservedbySerinoAqueductwouldhavethus metorexceeded217,000 people.Althoughtheothercitieswere notallsimilartoPompeii,ourstudyconsideredthatthepercapita watersupplywasofabout0.54m3_{/(dperperson).}

Anidenticalpercapitawatersupplywasprovidedviathe Augus-tanAqueductbyatotalflowrateof1352l/s.Thecurrentdischarge of“Acquaro-Pelosi”sourceis900l/s[29].Thetwovaluesare well-matchingsincethesourcehasbeeninuseforover2000years.

Assumingthat duringthefirstand secondcenturiesAD,the ancientcityofCumaehadmorethan2000inhabitantswithaper capitawatersupplycorrespondingto0.54m3_{/d,thewaterflowof}

thebranchaqueductdirectedtoCumaefromthemainstretchof theSerinoaqueductcouldbeestimatedat1076.7m3_/d.

4. Conclusions

Ahydrologicalanalysiswascarriedoutinordertoexactlyassess route,flowandusesofthewaterconveyedbytheAquaAugusta throughthecityofCumae.

Accordingtothis analysis,thehistorical recordsregarding a branchoftheAugustanAqueduct,whichwouldhavereachedthe cityofCumae,wereconfirmed.Thewaterflowofthebranch aque-ductdirectedtoCumaefromthemainstretchoftheSerinoaqueduct wasestimatedcorrespondingto12 l/s.

Acknowledgments

AuthorsacknowledgethePONAquasystemproject(Gestione IntegratadelCiclodelleAcquefinalizzataall’UsoSostenibiledelle Risorse,all’OttimizzazioneEnergetica,alMonitoraggioeControllo dellaQualitàdell’AcquaneiSistemiAcquedottisticienelleretidi DrenaggioUrbano)fundedbyPONR&C2007–2013,Smartcities andcommunitiesandsocialinnovation.

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