EVS25
Shenzhen, China, Nov 5-9, 2010
Driver influence in hybrid vehicle economic appraisal
Adriano Alessandrini
1, Francesco Filippi
1, Fernando Ortenzi
1, Fabio Orecchini
21
CTL, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Rome, Italy, adriano.alessandrini@unroma1.it
2
Guglielmo Marconi University - Via Plinio 44 Roma. Italy
Abstract
Hybrids are seen as a potential solution to urban traffic pollution and energy consumption; however studies show how pollution economic appraisal is one order of magnitude lower than fuel cost putting all the burden of the economic success the hybrid capability of reducing fuel consumption.
Two Honda Civic Hybrid of the Italian Ministry of Environment fleet were constantly monitored while driven one each by the calmest and by the most aggressive of the Ministry drivers to assess driver effects on air pollutant emissions.
Measurements have shown how the aggressive driver emits 10 times more VOC, and 4 times more CO and NOx than the calm driver while consuming 35% more fuel. In the economic appraisal over the expected 14 years vehicle life however the aggressive driver costs 16 300 € while the aggressive one 22 500 € only 38% more. This is due to the extremely low cost of emissions (excluding CO2) which is 160 € for the calm driver and 610 € for the aggressive one for the entire life of the vehicle.
Unless pollutants are monetized according to the position where they are “left” in the atmosphere there is no way emission differences between cars and drivers can be reflected in any economic appraisal.
Keywords—Hybrid vehicles, emissions, on-road acquisition, drive-style, economic appraisal.
1.
Introduction
Hybrid cars are widely seen as a potential solution to urban traffic pollution and energy consumption; however previous studies, [1] and [2], have shown how pollution economic appraisal is one order of magnitude lower than fuel cost putting all the burden of the economic success of the hybrid on its capability of reducing fuel consumption. This effect is even greater if carbon dioxide reduction is considered as an effect of fuel consumption reduction rather than among the other air pollutants (i.e. nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, particulate matters and volatile organic compounds). Any initiative to internalize social costs would therefore not promote hybrid car diffusion as much as small Diesel engines despite hybrid cars can generally achieve lower air pollutant emissions [3].
Furthermore previous studies [3] showed how drivers are responsible, as much as vehicles, of the emissions, and, despite hybrid vehicles tend to pollute generally less than conventional ones, the drivers still can have an influence on the emissions. Driver education to a more “environmental friendly” behavior is therefore as important as lowering vehicle emissions.
Is it possible to educate drivers to pollute less by internalizing the cost of their pollutions? In other words, where vehicles equipped with devices to measure the emissions really produced and drivers asked to pay for the corresponding social cost, would the price to pay be a sufficient incentive to change drive-style?
This paper main objective is to answer to these questions. It was first necessary to assess the extent of driver influence on consumption and emissions of hybrid vehicles and then to make an
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ker, and not y introduced m ol engine and ay any vehic communicat or less in a ollectable up t CTL, funde earch as th port and logi an on-boa uses includin tool is shown installed on ommon car-p e and switche been switch D port to th ommonly a C the control un nes are the EC r brakes and nit collect a n cies up to c, and store t Wi-Fi conn of acquired servers. The emergencies oolant temper end of the da countered an atment and a e the data ar Honda Civi mber of in only in more and d braking cle makes ion and standard to 100 Hz ed by the he Italian istics, has ard data ng remote in Figure a vehicle. pc which es of after hed off, is he vehicle CAN bus) nits of the CU for the d vehicle number of 4 Hz, them in a nection is data is e UMTS s (e.g. low ature, …) ay in case ny Wi-Fi thorough re reliable c Hybrid nteresting
paramete with a w from 9 t velocity position, temperat absolute pressure, of the ac list of th collected in Figure Figure collect th With resp in [3] vehicles this stud are direc condition the tool. link any emission the Hond have bee portable chassis (Istituto Counsel one grea complete who, ign CO2 and equilibriu products as a ca produced (when th and durin ers: vehicle sp wide band s o 30), the in (RPM), eng lambda ture, Close/ load (volum , ignition adv cquisition sof he data (righ d from a Hon e 2. 2 Screenshot he engine param of the H pect to the to to compare a great impr dy. The vehi ctly depende ns which are Models have y engine w ns produced. da Civic Hyb en proven to m emission m dynamomete Motori) of th (CNR) in N at advantage ely automatic noring to be m d CO are c um combusti , with the eq libration con d by the Hon hey depend o ng engine tra peed, air/fuel ensor and th ntake airflow, gine load, ac sensor vo /Open Loop metric efficie vance and ot ftware interfa ht hand side nda Civic Hy of the acquisit meters from th Honda Hybrid ool described hybrid an rovement has icle instantan ent on the e e very precise e therefore be working con The develop brid are repo measure emis measurement er at the E he Italian Na Naples. The t the for this c and invisib monitored, dri alculated us ion model wi quilibrium te nstant. VOC nda Hybrid on on the cataly ansients when l ratio (collec herefore prec , engine angu ccelerator pe ltage, catal p informati ncy), intake her. A snaps ace with the e of the figu brid is provid tion software to e OBD connec d. d in [4] and u nd conventio s been made neous emissi engine work ely collected een developed nditions to ped models orted in [5] a ssion better th t tools at Engine Instit ational Resea tool now off s analysis: it ble to the dri ives naturally ing a chemi th 6 combust emperature u C and NOx nly in cold s yst temperatu n they have b cted cise ular edal lyst ion, air shot full ure) ded o ctor used onal for ions king d by d to the for and han the tute arch ffers t is iver y. ical tion used are start ure) been pro gra To Civ dy the any dri bee and OB Th cal NO by F m Err res CV CO dir equ E Th val use Sin the un hyb and ind ene esp veh oven to be d adient. o validate th vic Hybrid namometer o e three Artem y synthetic d iving (RWDB en measured d with a po BS 1300), use he results, F lculated by th Ox are as or m the OBS [5] Figure 3 Comp measurement s rors shown spect to the VS and norm O2, with resp
rective to w uation 1 for C
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nce October 2 e Honda Civ dertaken a nu brid vehicles d publicity dependent res ergy-environm pecially in hicles. dependent on he models th have been t on several dri mis driving cy driving cycles B) [6] and [7 with the CV rtable emissi ed for compa Figure 3, sh he models for more accurate . parison of erro system and the CVS. in Figure 3 aggregate m malized, with pect to the which the ve CO. , Model OBS EuroIV O CO CO was used be ry low so the scale referencThe acquisit
2006, when H vic Hybrid, H umber of init s. Rather tha actions Hon search studie mental perfor comparison n the accelera hree differen tested on th iving cycles ycles which b s represent r 7]. The emiss VS (taken as r ion analyzer arison with th how how th or CO2, CO, e than those ors between an e models respe 3 are calcula measure give h the exceptio Euro IV li ehicle respon CVS O ecause the e EURO IV lim ce.tion campa
Honda release Honda Italia tiatives to pr an classical m nda Italia inves to quantify rmances of it n with con ator pedal nt Honda he chassis including better than real world ions have reference) r, (Horiba he models. he values VOC and measured onboard ct to the ated with en by the on of the mits (the nd) as in ( emissions mits were
aign
ed in Italy SpA has romote its marketing vested in y the real ts hybrids nventional 1)In this framework Honda Italia SpA has funded three subsequent CTL researches on its hybrids. The first to adapt CTL tools to hybrid vehicles; the second [3] to compare the performances of three Honda Civic, the Hybrid, the older hybrid named IMA and a conventional 2000 cc 16v; the third one to extend the results of the second, obtained monitoring a sample of drivers doing a given route with the three cars, to professional drivers unaware to be monitored.
The campaign described in this section is the one organized for the third of the Honda-CTL researches.
Honda Italia provided two identical Honda Hybrid to the Italian Ministry of Environment. The Ministry used them in its fleet of “service cars”. The cars were first given to CTL, in October 2007, to be thoroughly tested on the chassis dynamometer, to check they had exactly the same energy-environmental response, and to be equipped with the latest version of CTL tool to be hidden on board from the drivers.
The Ministry received the cars at the end of October and selected two drivers considered the most aggressive, a young man in his mid twenties, and the calmest, a fifty year old man. Cars and drivers were automatically monitored in November and December 2007 while used exactly as the two drivers were used to use the cars they drove previously.
In two months the cars had an overall recorded millage of 3600 km subdivided in 173 sessions (each being the data collected from one switch on and off of the vehicle).
The aggregate results of the campaign show average emissions of:
CO2 of 144 g/km, CO of 0.83 g/km, VOC of 0.01 g/km and NOx of 0.0035 g/km.
All these values are all below both EURO IV and EURO V limits with NOx and VOC one order of magnitude below the limit. The measured average fuel consumption is 13,8 km/l (7,2 l/100km). When the same results are split according to the driver (table 1) the calmer emits on average 130 g/km of CO2 against 166 g/km of the more aggressive (28% less) and consumes 6.58 l/100km of fuel against 9.09 l/100km (38% less).
Differences on the other emissions are even more pronounced 4 times for CO and NOx and 10 times for VOC (table 1 again).
All these differences in emissions and consumptions do not reflect in the average speed
which is even slightly higher in average for the calm driver than for the aggressive one.
Table 1: Average emissions, consumption and speed for the two drivers
Drivers Calm Aggressive CO2 g/km 130 166 CO g/km 0.37 1.38 VOC g/km 0.002 0.018 NOx g/km 0.004 0.014 Average speed km/h 39.4 37.7 Consumption l/100km 6.58 9.09
To check whether these difference varied with the route chosen the emission of the two vehicles have been analyzed according to the road segment on which they were produced. Such analysis showed how differences are higher on urban roads, where average speeds are low; while the more the average speed grows the less difference between driver-emissions exist.
Figure 4 is a snapshot of CTL web interface for data analysis. It has a map of Rome. Few road links, on which vehicles passed several times each, are highlighted in red. Clicking on one highlighted link the “call out” window with the chart pops up. The chart in the popped up window in Figure 4 shows on “via del Circo Massimo” the dependence of CO emissions from one aggregate indicator of the driver behavior: the standard deviation of the accelerator pedal position. Each dot in the figure is one passage of one vehicle/driver on via del Circo Massimo. The dot is green for the aggressive driver and red for the calm one. The more the driver moves the accelerator pedal, passing suddenly from zero (0%) to full throttle (!00%) and vice versa the more the standard deviation grows. The calm driver arrives maximum to 28% on the link wile the aggressive driver reaches 45%. On the vertical axes there are the CO emissions in g/km. The red dots are almost always on the bottom line between 0 and 2 g/km (1 g/km is the Euro IV limit) while the green dots goes up to 20 g/km.
Figure 4 emissio drivers (v the calm) devi Via del huge diff about 20 traffic ju driver th middle it roundabo and the pavemen where al are no m big diffe part of th are produ However larger em table 1 ca
4.
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conomic im vehicle life, congestion, the monetar have been ad overall costs mileage of o mated as vehic f consumptio rter in table 0 000 km to h mission produ expected life-has been co it was on ave 2010. ace showing C mo” for the twoand veicolo 2 f ator pedal stand on the road. chosen to sh ers. It starts w uphill with li any aggress le. Around l had has a la y to slow do t with unev ight at the e necessary. Th verage speed ched in the f of the emissi ent road lin
the averages driver.
ppraisal
mpact of dri excluding a road safety ry values of dded to the co s of fuel a over 250 000 cle lifetime. on and emissi e 1 have b have the ove uced by the t -time. onsidered to erage in Italy CO o for dard how with ittle sive the arge own ven end here but first ions nks, s ofl
iver any or the osts and km ions been erall two be y on Ta Em Lit cos res sel Th tw Th NA for and Fu CO ov CO che end gra gra 39 dif Ta pro tab tw 25 Ex for han agg the ov 10 res the Ap of int CO fueable 2: the socia sources, o mission Socia Costs €/t CO2 CO VOC NOx terature repo sts of emiss spectively int lected for the he prices of th o sources are he internation AMEA [9] s r the social c d 7 times urthermore th O worth anyth er 1.4 thousa O seems no emical proce d, transform ams of the C ams; therefor €/t in propo fference in we able 3 is ob ovided by th ble 2) to the r o drivers (tab 0 000 km of xcluding CO2 r emissions in nd the non-C gressive driv e negligible su erall costs ri 62.5 € for th spect to the co e calm driver pplying the H emissions ternalization o O2 and could el cost of abo al costs of emi one internation l Costs of t [5] 25 0 1100 5700
orts very dif sions. The t ternationally a purpose of th he different em e reported in t nal Handboo eem to have costs of the lower for e Handbook hing while fo and Euros per ot completely ess. Each mo in one mole CO mole the e CO emissio ortion to the eight. btained apply he Handbook results of the ble 1 of prev expected veh 2 the total am n the 14 years CO2 emissio ver more than um of 25 Eur se up to 818 he aggressive ost of fuel res and 21378.6 Handbook [8] are entire of social cost d be easily d ut 5%. issions calculat nal and one Ital
the different s 8 14 80 190 fferent value two most a and in Italy h his study. mission spec table 2. ok [8] and th e different m emissions, b the Handb [8] does not or NAMEA [9 r ton. Such po y coherent ole of CO w of CO2. Fro e CO2 will w ons should at e CO2 costs ying the soc k [8] (first c measuremen vious section) hicle life. mount of so s is 6.3 €. On ons would co n 4 times tha ros. Including 8.8 € for the e both neglig spectively 15 for the aggre ] social costs ely negligib ts would just done by incre ted by two lian sources [8] 85.69 477.89 018.88 087.68 s for the ccredited, have been ies by the he Italian magnitudes between 3 book [8]. t consider 9] it costs osition on with the ill, in the om the 28 weight 44 least cost s and the cial costs olumn of nts for the ) over the cial costs n the other ost to the at but still g CO2 the calm and gible with 5471.3 for essive. the costs ble. The t be about easing the
Table 3: External costs for the two drivers according to the Handbook [8]
Total Costs according to
source [8]
Costs for the different drivers
Calm Aggressive
CO2 812.5 1037.5
CO 0 0
VOC 0.6 5.0
NOx 5.7 20.0
Total cost for emissions
818.8 1062.5 Consumption 15471.3 21378.6
Total cost 16290.1 22441.1
Table 4: External costs for the two drivers according to NAMEA cost tables [9]
Total Costs according to source
[8]
Costs for the different drivers Calm Aggressive CO2 2784.9 3556.1 CO 136.7 509.9 VOC 4.0 36.1 NOx 19.1 66.8
Total cost for emissions
2944.7 4168.9
Consumption 15471.3 21378.6
Total cost 18416.0 25547.5
Table 4 is obtained repeating the same calculations with the NAMEA [9] social costs. Beside CO2, VOC and NOx costs being all from 3 to 7 times higher the main difference between the costs in table 3 and 4 is the CO. The social cost for non CO2 emissions for the aggressive driver were in table 3 25 €. In table 4 they are 612.8 €. The main difference is in the nearly 510 € for CO which was completely neglected in table 3.
Overall the emissions costs for the calm driver rise from 800 to 2900 € and for the aggressive from 1000 € to 4100 €. Still the main cost is CO2, which is linked to consumption more than anything else.
Even considering the higher NAMEA [9] values to calculate the social costs the overall cost difference between an aggressive and a calm driver is only 38% despite the aggressive driver emits 10 times more VOC, and 4 times more CO and NOx than the calm driver while consuming 35% more.
5. Conclusions
Hybrid cars have proven to be able to contain noxious emissions (all but CO2 which depends mainly on fuel consumption) while being in the same league of conventional Diesel cars in terms of fuel consumption.
Previous studies had shown how internalizing the external costs of vehicle-pollution was not enough to justify the extra cost of an hybrid vehicle mostly because the main social cost is due to the monetization of CO2.
Despite the good results of the hybrid technology to minimize noxious emissions however drivers still have an influence on the emissions produced. The aim of this paper was to assess whether the technique of internalizing the social costs of emissions could be used to foster a more “environmental friendly” behavior on the drivers. Two identical Honda Civic Hybrid were equipped with CTL tool to monitor driver behavior and vehicle response to it and given to two professional drivers of the Italian Ministry of Environment selected because they are the calmest and the most aggressive drivers in the Ministry service. The drivers were unaware to be monitored and therefore behaved normally. The vehicles were monitored for two months and had an overall mileage of 3600 km.
As overall result the car were able to keep all emissions under the EURO IV and EURO V limits but when the same results are split according to the driver the calmer emits on average 130 g/km of CO2 against 166 g/km of the more aggressive (28% less) and consumes 6.58 l/100km of fuel against 9.09 l/100km (38% less).
Differences on the other emissions are even more pronounced 4 times for CO and NOx and 10 times for VOC.
All these differences in emissions and consumptions do not reflect in the average speed which is even slightly higher in average for the calm driver than for the aggressive one.
When analyzing the data on single road links differences are even greater; the aggressive driver can emit 20 times more CO than the calm one. Despite these results in the economic appraisal over 250 000 km in 14 years estimated vehicle lifetime the calm driver costs between 16 300 € and 18 400 € (depending on the social costs used to monetize emissions) while the aggressive one costs between 22 500 € and 25 500€ only 38% more. This is due to the extremely low cost of emissions (excluding CO2) which is maximum
160 € for the aggr vehicle. However are mone not acco This is c global w pollutant inhaling heritage. Overall times mo vehicle according the atmo can be r driver di in terms with resp
6. R
[1] Lav econ vehi inter Tras 162 [2] Ales Vehi Hyb AFH AFH [3] Ales F.Vi testi mea Euro 1, Is (Prin [4] A. F.Or beha envi 200 Eng [5] F.O calc OBD 12-1 Pap r the calm dr ressive one r in the econo etized with a ount where it correct for C warming effe ts which have them and o an aggressiv ore than a calbut unless g to the posi osphere there reflected in a ifferences, as of pollutant pect to fuel co
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03 Adriano is which he par funded as t nsport and log nce his grad nducted Euro stems and o nsport, his ma e speaks fluent P C V I T f T ofessor in DIT ., 2004, The ycles for me Science of t p.73-84; , Jourmard, R 2006, Real-w measuring po d low-powere ent 40, pp.594 ch, C. Schrey H. Boon, R. Sm awlowska and of external Produced w tion Measure ost of Transp 2008 d uropa.eu/transp handbook.pdf MEA Costi e 1990-2003 D à Nazionale, C it 2007 Dr. Adriano CTL – Sa Roma, Via E Rome, Italy Tel. 39-06-44 Mechanical e Ph.D. in ene s currently Re rticipated sinc the Italian ce gistics. duation he pean research on the envi ain research fi tly Italian, En Prof. France CTL – Sapien Via Eudossian Italy Tel. 39-06-445 francesco.filip Transport en TS, Engineeri e ARTEMIS easuring carthe Total Env
R., Vidon, R., T world Europea ollutant emiss ed cars. Atm 44-5953 yer, D. Sutter mokers, A. Sc d M. Bak Han costs in the within the es and Policie port (IMPACT downloadable port/sustainab economici na Direzione Cen Contabilità Am o Alessandri apienza Univ Eudossiana 18 4585148 engineer since ergy technolo esearch Fello ce the proposa entre of exce has particip h projects on ironmental im ields.
nglish and Fren esco Filippi nza Università na 18, I-001 585147 ppi@uniroma1 ngineer sinc ing Faculty, U European pollutant vironment Tassel, P., an driving sions from mospheric r H.P. van chroten C. ndbook on transport e study es for All T) Version e at ble/doc/20 azionali e ntrale della mbientale. ni versità di 8, I-00184 e 1998 and gies since w at CTL al stage to ellence on pated and n transport mpact of nch. à di Roma, 84 Rome, 1.it ce 1970. University
of Rome CTL. He Programm Numerou on Edito Research Portugue and “Au "Sapienza ordinator projects. Sustainab resources Renewab solutions technolog He is a r interests environm developm electronic modelling La Sapienza. has been act me in Europea us papers publ orial Advisor h. Languages se. Prof. Profes Unive Co-or enviro at CIR centre utomotive R a" University r of national RESEARCH bility of Energ s and technolo bles to Hydr for Sustainab Dr. F CTL Roma Rome Tel. 3 Ferna engin gies. research fellow are: the m mental impac ment of tool c system of ve g and fleet ma He is the fou tive, since the an research. lished in Euro ry Board of s: Italian, E Fabio Orecc ssor at Gug ersity -. Via Pl rdinator of onment Resear RPS - Interun e for sustainab Research Gro y of Rome. l and intern TOPICS gy systems; R ogies; Hydrog rogen; Energ ble Mobility. Fernando Or – Sapienza a, Via Eudoss e, 39-06-4458514 ando Ortenzi eer and Ph w at CTL. H measurement ct of vehi s to collect ehicles and tru anagement.
unding directo e 3rd Framew ope and the U f Transportat English, Fren chini glielmo Marc linio 44 Roma "Energy rch Group"-G niversity resea ble developm oup”, GRA Scientific national resea Renewable ene gen energy cha gy systems rtenzi a Università siana 18, I-00 It 48 is a mechan h.D in ene His main resea of energy icles and
data from ucks for emiss
or of work U.S.; tion nch, coni a and GEA arch ment at co-arch ergy ain; and di 184 taly nical ergy arch and the the sion
