E U R O P E A N U N I V E R S I T Y I N S T I T U T E
CIVIL LIABILITY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE: A
COMPARATIVE SURVEY OF HARMONISED EUROPEAN
LEGISLATION
A DISSERTATION SUBM ITTED TO
TH E DEPARTMENT O F LAW IN CANDIDACY FO R THE D EG REE O F
M A S T E R IN E U R O P E A N IN T E R N A T IO N A L A N D C O M P A R A T IV E L A W B Y
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T E R E S A M O R A IS L E IT A O FLORENCE, ITALY J A N U A R Y , 1 9 9 5in st it u te
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* * * ' ... »in«fihiE U R O P E A N U N I V E R S I T Y I N S T I T U T E
CIVIL LIABILITY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE: A
COMPARATIVE SURVEY OF HARMONISED EUROPEAN
LEGISLATION
A D IS S E R T A T IO N S U B M IT T E D T O T H E D E P A R T M E N T O F L A W IN C A N D ID A C Y F O R T H E D E G R E E O F M A S T E R IN E U R O P E A N IN T E R N A T IO N A L A N D C O M P A R A T IV E L A WBY
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A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S ... C H A P T E R 1 IN T R O D U C T IO N ... 1.1 . T h e T o p ic ... 1 .1 .1 . E n v iro n m e n ta l P ro te c tio n th ro u g h C iv il L ia b ility 1 .2 . T h e A im o f th e T h e s is ... 1 .2 .1 . T h e M a in Q u e rie s ...
1.2 .2 . M a in q u e s tio n s w h ich w ill n o t b e re fe rre d to ... 1 .3 . C o n fig u ra tio n o f th e T h e s is ... 1 .3 .1 . O rg a n is a tio n ... 1 .3 .2 . O u tlo o k ...
C H A P T E R 2 D E F IN IT IO N S U S E D IN T H E T H E S IS ... 2 .1 . D e fin itio n o f th e E n v iro n m e n t... 2 .1 .1 . In C o m m u n ity L a w ... 2 .1 .2 . In In te rn a tio n a l L a w ... 2 .2 . D e fin itio n o f E n v iro n m e n ta l D a m a g e . 2 .2 .1 . In C o m m u n ity L a w ... 2 .2 .2 . In In te rn a tio n a l L a w ... 2 .2 .2 .1 . In th e C o u n c il o f E u ro p e C o n v e n tio n ... .
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13 14 16 17 C H A P T E R 3 R O L E O F C IV IL L IA B IL IT Y IN T H E P R E V E N T IO N O F E N V IR O N M E N T A L D A M A G E ... 19 3 .1 . In tr o d u c tio n ... 19 3 .2 . P o s itio n o f th e E u ro p e a n C o m m u n it y ... 2 03 .2 .1 . L e g a l H a rm o n is a tio n ... ... 3 .3 . T h e Im p o rta n c e g iv e n to E n v iro n m e n ta l L ia b ility b y
th e In te rn a tio n a l C o m m u n ity ... 3 .4 . A re C iv il L ia b ility R u le s a n a p p r o p r ia te in s tru m e n t w it h w h ic h t o in d e m n ify D a m a g e ' c a u s e d to P u b lic G o o d s ... 2 8 3 .5 . E c o n o m ic J u s tific a tio n s ...29 3 .5 .1 . E c o n o m ic Im m u n ity ... 29 3 .5 .2 . "E n v iro n m e n ta l S h o p p in g "... 32 C H A P T E R 4 C O M P A R IS O N O F C IV IL L IA B IL IT Y S Y S T E M S ...34 4 .1 . In tr o d u c tio n ... 3 4 4 .2 . F a u lt-b a s e d lia b ilit y ...3 5 4 .2 .1 . F a u lt... 36 4 .2 .1 .1 . Im p u ta tio n ...37 4 .2 .2 . U n la w fu ln e s s ... 38 4 .2 .3 . C a u s a tio n ... 39 4 .2 .3 .1. J o in t a n d S e v e ra l lia b ility ... 40 4 .2 .3 .2 . L e n d e r L ia b ility ... 42 4 .2 .4 . D a m a g e ...44
4 .3 . N o n -fa u lt lia b ilit y ... 44
4 .3 .1 . A b s o lu te L ia b ility ... 45
4 .3 .2 . C o lle c tiv e lia b ility ... 4 5 4 .3 .2 .1 . A lte rn a tiv e lia b ility ... 47
4 .3 .2 .2 . E n te rp ris e lia b ility ... 48
4 .3 .2 .3 . M a rk e t s h a re lia b ility ... 48
4 .3 .2 A . Risk S h a r e Liability 49 C H A P T E R S C O M M U N IT Y L A W ...51 5 .1 . - In tr o d u c tio n ... 51 5 .2 . T h e M a a s tr ic h t T re a ty a n d C o m m u n ity E n v iro n m e n ta l la w ... 52 5 .2 .1 . In tro d u c tio n ... 52 5 .2 .2 . S u s ta in a b le g ro w th ... 52 5 .2 .3 . S u b s id ia rity P rin c ip le ...53 5 .2 .4 . S ta te s A id s a n d o th e r F in a n c ia l A id s ... 54 5 .2 .4 .1. C o h e s io n fu n d ... 54 5 .2 .4 .2 . D e ro g a tio n ... 55
5 .2 .5 . T h e B a s ic P rin c ip le s a n d th e P re c a u tio n a ry P rin c ip le ... 55
5 .2 .6 . T h e L e g is la tiv e P ro c e s s ...56
5 .3 . T h e E v o lu tio n o f E n v iro n m e n ta l L ia b ility R u le s ...5 7 5 .3 .0 . 1. T h e P o llu te r P ays P rin c ip le ...58
5 .3 .0 . 2 . P a rtia l H a rm o n is a tio n o f L ia b ility L a w ... 5 9 5 .3 .0 . 3 . C iv il P ro c e d u ra l L a w ... 61
5 .4 . T h e P ro p o s a l f o r a C o u n c il D ire c tiv e o n C iv il L ia b ility f o r D a m a g e c a u s e d b y W a s te a n d th e G re e n P a p e r...6 2 5 .4 .1 . S c o p e o f th e P rop ose d D ire c tiv e , a n d o f a n y p o te n tia l D ire c tiv e on E n v iro n m e n ta l L ia b ility ...64 5 .4 .1 .1 . D e fin itio n o f e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e ... 6 5 5 .4 .1 .2 . T y p e s o f w a s te to b e c o v e re d b y th e D ire c tiv e ...6 5 5 .4 .1 .3 . E x c lu s io n s fro m th e s c o p e ...6 6
5 .4 .2 . P rin c ip le s o f L ia b ility ... 6 8
5 .4 .2 .1. S tric t lia b ility o r fa u lt lia b ility ...6 8
5 .4 .2 .2 . R e s p o n s ib le p a rty ...71 5 .4 .2 .2 .1. E lim in a to r o f W a s te ... i ... 7 2 5 .4 .2 .2 .2 . T h e C a rrie r o f W a s te ... .. 5 .4 .2 .2 .3 . P u b lic A u th o ritie s ... ... 5 .4 .2 .3 . L e n d e r lia b ility ...7 5 5 .4 .2 .4 . In fo rm a tio n R ig h t... ... 5 .4 .3 . S ta n d in g ... 7 7 5 .4 .3 .1. P u b lic a u th o ritie s ... ... 5 .4 .3 .2 . E n v iro n m e n ta l a s s o c ia tio n s ... .. 5 .4 .4 . R e m e d ie s ... ... 5 .4 .4 .1. E v o lu tio n ... 8 0 5 .4 .4 .2 . P riv a te p a rtie s ... 81 5 .4 .4 .3 . P u b lic a u th o ritie s a n d C o m m o n -in te re s t G ro u p s ... 5 .4 .4 .4 . L im ita tio n s o f L ia b ility ...8 3 5 .4 .4 .5 . C o m p e n s a tio n fo r e c o n o m ic o r o th e r n o n -m a te ria l d a m a g e ... 8 5 5 .4 .4 .6. P u n itiv e D a m a g e s ...8 6 5 .4 .5 . B u rd e n o f P r o o f...8 6 5 .4 .5 .1. F ro m th e "O v e rw h e lm in g P ro b a b ility " to th e S ta n d a rd o f P ro o f T e s t...8 6 5 .4 .5 .2 . J o in t a n d S e v e ra l L ia b ility ... 8 7 5 .4 .6 . D e fe n c e s ... 8 9 5 .4 .6 .1 . F o rc e M a je u re ... 5 .4 .6 .2 . F a u lt o f th e In ju re d P a r ty ... ... 5 .4 .6 .3 . C o n trib u to ry A c ts o f T h ird P a rtie s ... ... 5 .4 .1 .4 . S c o p e of a p o ssib le Directive o n Environmental Liability in G e n e ra l...67
5 .4 .6 .4 . A u th o ris a tio n by P u b lic A u th o ritie s ... 92
5 .4 .6 .5 . C o n tra c tu a l d e ro g a tio n ... 9 5 5 .4 .7 . L im ita tio n p e rio d s ...9 6 5 .4 .7 .1 . E x p ira tio n p e rio d ... 9 6 5 .4 7 .2 . R e tro a c tiv e a p p lic a tio n ...9 7 5 .4 .7 .2 .1 . In th e p ro p o s e d D ire c tiv e ... 97 5 .4 .8 . In s u ra n c e ...98 5 .4 .8 .1 . E v o lu tio n in C o m m u n ity L a w ...9 8 5 .4 .8.2. T h e F in a l P ro p o s a l... ,... 9 9 5 .4 .8 .3 . L im its o n L ia b ility ... 9 9 5 .4 .8 .4 . T h e G re e n P a p e r...1 0 0 5 .4 .8 .5 . In s u re rs a s L ice n se rs o f th e In d u s try ...1 0 0 5 .4 .8.6. F u tu re p e rs p e c tiv e s ... 101 5 .4 .9 . C o m p e n s a tio n fu n d ... 101 5 .4 .1 0 . C o n c lu s io n ... 103 C H A P T E R 6 IN T E R N A T IO N A L L A W ...106 6 .1 . In tr o d u c tio n ...106 6 .2 . T h e C o u n c il o f E u ro p e C o n v e n tio n ...1 0 7 6 .2 .1 . R e la tio n s h ip w ith th e E E C le g a l s y s te m ...108
6 .2 .2 . T h e R e la tio n s h ip w ith o th e r In te rn a tio n a l In s tru m e n ts ... 110
6 .2 .2 .1 . T h e B ru s s e ls C o n v e n tio n ...110 6 .2 .2 .2 . O th e r In te rn a tio n a l In s tru m e n ts ...110 6 .2 .3 . S c o p e o f th e C o n v e n tio n ...1 1 1
6 .2 .3 .1 . D e fin itio n o f E n v iro n m e n t...1 1 1
6 .2 .3 .2 .1. W a s te d is p o s a l s ite s ... 113
6 .2 .3 .2 .2 . G e n e tic a lly M o d ifie d O rg a n is m s a n d M ic ro -o rg a n is m s ... 113
6 .2 .3 .2 .3 . D a n g e ro u s S u b s ta n c e s ... 114
6 .2 .4 . L ia b ility P rin c ip le s ... 116
6 .2 .4 .1. S tric t lia b ility o r fa u lt lia b ility ... 116
6 .2 .4 .2. R e s p o n s ib l e p a rty ... 116 6 .2 .4 .3 . L e n d e r lia b ility ... 118 6 .2 .4 .4 . In fo rm a tio n rig h t... 118 6 .2 .5 . S ta n d in g ...1 2 0 6 .2 .5 .1. P u b lic a u th o ritie s ...1 2 0 6 .2 .5 .2 . E n v iro n m e n ta l A s s o c ia tio n s ... 120 6.2.6. R e m e d ie s ...121
6.2.6.1. C o m p e n s a tio n fo r Im p a irm e n t to th e E n v iro n m e n t... 122
L im ita tio n s o f L ia b ility ...122
6 .2 .7 . B u rd e n o f p ro o f...123 6 .2 .7 .1. C a u s a l lin k ... 123 6 .2 .7 .2 . J o in t a n d S e ve ra l lia b ility ...124 6.2.8. D e fe n c e s ... ... 125 6.2.8.1. F o rc e M a je u re ...126 6 .2 .8 .2 . F a u lt o r In te re s t o f th e In ju re d P a rty ... 127
6.2.8.3 . C o n trib u to ry A cts o f T h ird P a r tie s ...128
6 .2 .8 .4 . A u th o ris a tio n b y P u b lic A u th o ritie s ... 128
6 .2 .8 .5 . A c c e p ta b le Le ve l o f P o llu tio n ...129
6 .2 .9 . L im ita tio n p e rio d s ... 129
6 .2 .9 .1 . E x p ira tio n P e rio d s ... 129
6 .2 .9 .2 . R e tro a c tiv e a p p lic a tio n ... 131
6.2.10. In su ra n c e 132
6.2.1 1. C o m p e n s a tio n F u n d ... 133
C H A P T E R 7 C O N C L U S IO N S ...1 35 7 .1 . F u tu re In s tr u m e n t o n C iv il L ia b ility fo r E n v iro n m e n ta l D a m a g e ...135
7 .1 .1 . S c o p e o f a p o te n tia l L e g a l In s tru m e n t o n C iv il L ia b ility fo r E n viro n m e n ta l D a m a g e ...136
7 .1 .1 .1 . D e fin itio n o f E n v iro n m e n t...136
7 .1 .1.2. D e fin itio n o f E n v iro n m e n ta l D a m a g e ... 137
7 .1 .1 .3 . T y p e o f a c tiv itie s to b e c o v e re d ... 137
7 .1 .1 .4 . E x c lu s io n s fro m th e s c o p e ... 138
7 .1 .1.5. G e o g ra p h ic a l s c o p e ... 138
7 .1 .1.6. T h e B ru s s e ls C o n v e n tio n ...139
7 .1 .2 . L ia b ility p rin c ip le s ... 140
7 .1 .2.1. S tric t lia b ility o r fa u lt lia b ility s y s te m ... 140
7 .1 .2 .2 . R e s p o n s ib le P a rty ... 141 7 .1 .2 .3 . L e n d e r L ia b ility ... 142 7 .2 . S ta n d in g ... 1 44 7 .2 .0 . 1. E n v iro n m e n ta l O rg a n is a tio n s ...144 7 .2 .0 . 2. P riv a te In d iv id u a ls ... 1 4 5 7 .2 .1 . R e m e d ie s ... 146 7 .2 .1 .1. C o m p e n s a tio n fo r D a m a g e S tric to S e n s u ... 147
7 .2 .1 .2 . C o m p e n s a tio n fo r Im p a irm e n t to th e E n v iro n m e n t...1 4 8 7 .2 .1 .3 . L im ita tio n s o f L ia b ility ... 149
7 .2 .1 .4 . C o m p e n s a tio n fo r E c o n o m ic o r o th e r N o n -m a te ria l D a m a g e ... 150
I 7 .2 .1 .5 . P u n itiv e D a m a g e s ... 151
7.3 Burden of Proof...151
7 .3 .1 . C a u s a l L in k ... 151 7 .3 .2 . J o in t a n d S e v e ra l L ia b ility ... 1537.4 Defences.... ...
154
7 .4 .1 . F o rc e M a je u re ...1 5 4 7 .4 .2 . F a u lt o r In te re s t o f th e In ju re d P a rty ... 1557 .4 .3 . C o n trib u to ry A c ts o f T h ird P a rtie s ... 155
7 .4 .4 . A u th o ris a tio n b y P u b lic A u th o ritie s ... ... 156
7 .4 .5 . C o n tra c tu a l D e ro g a tio n ... 157
7 .4 .6 . A c c e p ta b le L e ve l o f P o llu tio n ... 158
7.5. Limitation Periods...
158
7 .5 .1 . E x p ira tio n P e rio d ... 158
7 .5 .2 . R e tro a c tiv e A p p lic a tio n ... 159
7.6... Insurance
7 .6 .1 . H a rm o n is a tio n o f E u ro p e a n In s u ra n c e L a w ...161 7 .6 .2 . In s u ra n c e C o v e ra g e ... 161 7 .6 .3 . G e o g ra p h ic a l C o v e ra g e ... 162 7 .6 .4 . T e m p o ra l C o v e ra g e ... 162 7 .6 .5 . F u tu re P e rs p e c tiv e s ...163 7 .6 .6 . In s u ra n c e P o o ls ... 1637.7. Joint Compensation Schemes... 164
7 .7 .1 . G re e n T a x e s ... 166
7.8. Conclusion... 167
BIBLIOGRAPHY... 169
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
M y d e e p e s t g ra titu d e g o e s to m y fa m ily , s p e c ia lly to m y m o th e r a n d m y fa th e r w h o h a v e s u p p o rte d a nd e n c o u ra g e d m e th ro u g h o u t th e a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f th is th e s is , a n d m o s t im p o rta n t, in e v e ry s te p o f m y life .
I am a ls o h e a v ily in d e b te d to P ro fe s s o r M a rc e lo R e b e llo d e S o u sa ( U n iv e rs ity o f L is b o n ) w h o e n co u ra g e d a n d e n a b le d m e tc a tte n d th is M a s te r p ro g ra m a n d fo r h is d e c is iv e c o m m e n ts on th e s u b je c ts c h o ic e . P a rtic u la r a c k n o w le d g e m e n t is o w e d to P ro fe s s o r J o e rg e s , fo r h is g u id a n c e a n d c o -s u p e rv is io n th a t p la y e d a v e ry im p o rta n t ro le in th e s ta rt a n d c o m p le tio n o f th is w o rk .
F o r th e fin a n c ia l s u p p o rt, I a m v e ry th a n k fu l fo r th e g ra n t g iv e n b y th e M in is try o f F o re ig n A ffa irs o f th e R e p u b lic o f P o rtu g a l th a t a llo w e d to a tte n d th e M a s te r D e g re e a t th e E U I in F lo re n c e .
In w h a t re g a rd s m y a c a d e m ic re s e a rc h , I a m v e ry g ra te fu l to th e lib ra ry a n d a c a d e m ic s ta ff a t th e E u ro p e a n U n iv e rs ity In s titu te , p a rtic u la rly to M ic h ie l T e g e la a rs fo r h is p a tie n t a n d a tte n tio n in e x p la in in g m e e v e ry th in g a b o u t b ib lio g ra p h y re s e a rc h .
N o n e o f th e a b o ve m e n tio n e d o r a llu d e d to a re re s p o n s ib le fo r e rro rs fo r c o m m is s io n o r o m is s io n in th e fo llo w in g p a g e s, s in c e I s h a ll b e th e so le re s p o n s ib le fo r a ll e rro rs a n d m is ta k e s , a s w e ll a s fo r th e id e a s a n d p re s e n ta tio n o f e v id e n c e .
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1 .1 . Th e To p ic
1 .1 :1 .E n v ir o n m e n ta l P r o t e c t io n th r o u g h C iv il L ia b ilit y
A lth o u g h c iv il lia b ility a s a m e a n s o f c o m p e n s a tin g e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e a n d p re v e n tin g fu tu re p o llu tio n w a s la rg e ly n e g le c te d in th e p a s t, its p o s s ib ilitie s h a v e re c e n tly b e e n re d is c o v e re d . P re v io u s ly , p re v e n ta tiv e le g is la tiv e m e a su re s w e re c o n s id e re d p re fe ra b le in th e fie ld o f e n v iro n m e n ta l p ro te c tio n , b u t v io la tio n , fa u lty o r a c c id e n ta l, o f e n v iro n m e n ta l ru le s w a s in e v ita b le 1 . A s K ra m e r re c e n tly s ta te d , " it lo o k s as if a ll co m b in e d ru le s o f C o m m u n ity and n a tio n a l e n v iro n m e n ta l la w , a d o p te d o v e r tw e n ty y e a rs , have n o t m a n a g e d s ig n ific a n tly o r g e n e ra lly to re ve rse th e tre n d o f th e s lo w b u t c o n tin u e d d e g ra d a tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t w ith in th e E E C "2. T h e re fo re , th e p ro te c tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t th ro u g h c iv il lia b ility in s tru m e n ts is o n e o f to d a y ’s m o s t d is c u s s e d s u b je c t a m o n g th e e x p e rts o f e n v iro n m e n ta l la w .
1
S e e A lin e d e B iè v re ,"Civil Liability and Compensation for Damages caused by
certain Hazardous
and
Noxious Substances (HN$) during their Carnage
by
S e a ", w h o c o n firm s th e in te re s tin g a s s u m p tio n s ta te d b y M u rp h y 's la w , a c c o rd in g to w h ic h if s o m e th in g c a n g o w ro n g it w ill g o w ro n g ;2
S e e L u d w ig K rä m e r, "The implementation of
Environmental Laws by the European
Economic
Communitiesft
3 4 G e rm a n Y e a rb o o k o f In te rn a tio n a l L a w , B e rlin , 1 9 9 2 , p p .C H A P T E R 1 12 INTROD UCTION
T h e g ro w in g risk o f e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e th a t is in h e re n t in m o d e m in d u s tria l a c tiv ity h a s stre sse d th e n e e d fo r th e co m p e n s a tio n o f s u c h d a m a g e to b e re g u la te d , n a m e ly th ro u g h c iv il lia b ility ru le s . In fa c t, th e g ro w th o f th e e co n o m y a n d o f th e le v e ls o f p ro d u c tio n h a v e le d to a n in cre a se o f e n v iro n m e n ta l a c c id e n ts , n a m e ly o il s p ills , a c id ra in , w a te r p o llu tio n a n d th e g re e n h o u s e e ffe c t . N o tw ith s ta n d in g th e s e m a jo r a c c id e n ts , to d a y 's e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n c e rn s re la te m o re to b a re ly d e te c ta b le tra c e s o f s u b s ta n c e s in th e a ir, s o ils a n d w a te r w h ic h c a u s e n o n -s ig n a tu re d is e a s e s . In fa c t, a s th e G re e n P a p e r c o rre c tly stre s s e d , d a m a g e ca u s e d b y n o n -a c c id e n ta l a c tiv itie s is le ss s p e c ta c u la r b u t m o re e x te n s iv e a n d th e re fo re as m u c h in n e e d o f
4
re m e d ia l a c tio n . H o w e v e r, a v e n th o u g h th e s e ty p e s o f in ju rie s sh o u ld p re fe ra b ly b e d e a lt w ith th ro u g h p re v e n ta tiv e re g u la tio n , a n a p p ro p ria te c iv il lia b ility s y s te m m a y p ro v id e a n im p o rta n t s u p p le m e n ta ry sy s te m o f e n v iro n m e n ta l re g u la tio n a n d an
c
e ffic ie n t m e c h a n is m in c o m p e n s a tin g v ic tim s o f p ro p e rty a n d h e a lth in ju rie s .
In th e o ry , b y id e n tify in g th e c a u s e o f e n v iro n m e n ta l h a rm , a nd q u a n tify in g th e h a rm c a u s e d to th e p la in tiff, th e in d iv id u a l a s s ig n m e n t o f lia b ility th ro u g h th e c o u rt p ro v id e s c o m p e n s a tio n to v ic tim s w h ile in te rn a lis in g th e s o c ia l c o s ts o f h a rm
g
p ro d u c in g a c tiv itie s . A c c o rd in g ly , a n y c iv il lia b ility s y s te m is u s e fu l in th e p ro te c tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t as lo n g a s it p ro v id e s a fa ir c o m p e n s a tio n fo r d a m a g e c a u s e d to
f
’
1
3 S e e P e te r W e tte rs te in ,"Recent Trends in the Development of International Civil
Liability'
in N o rd ic J o u rn a l o f In te rn a tio n a l L a w , 19 91 , v o l. 6 0 , n® 1-2, p p . 4 9 , w h o c o n firm s th a t th e ris k s o f e n v iro n m e n ta l c a ta s tro p h e s in c re a s e s a ll th e tim e d u e to th e ra p id te c h n o lo g ic a l and in d u s tria l d e v e lo p m e n t in th e w o rld a n d to th e in c re a s in g in te rc o u rs e b e tw e e n c o u n trie s a n d p e o p le ;4 S e e a ls o H a n s U lric h J e s s u ru n d 'O liv e ir a ,"
The Sandoz Blaze: the
damage and the
public and
private liabilities?,
in In te rn a tio n a l R e s p o n s ib ility fo r E n v iro n m e n ta l H a rm , C h a p te r 1 8 , w h o c o n firm s th a t a c c id e n ts a re ju s t a s "s tru c tu ra l as th e re g u la te d re le a s e s c o v e re d b y p e rm its a n d a s th e re le a s e s fro m d iffu s e s o u rc e s , th e to ta l g u a n tity o f w h ic h fa r e x c e e d s th o s e fro m a c c id e n ts ";S e e P e te r S . M e n e l, "
The limitations of legal institutions for addressing
environmental
risks”
in J o u rn a l o f E c o n o m ic P e rs p e c tiv e s , 1 9 9 1 , v o l. 5 , is s u e 3 , p p . 94*C H A PT E R 1 INTRODUCTION
13
in d iv id u a ls a n d fu lfils its p re v e n tiv e a n d e c o n o m ic fu n c tio n . In o th e r w o rd s , s u c h a lia b ility s y s te m s h o u ld d e te r th e o rig in a to r o f th e e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e fro m a llo w in g s u c h d a m a g e to o c c u r a t a ll - p re v e n ta tiv e fu n c tio n - a n d th e co sts o f c o m p e n s a tin g th e d a m a g e c a u se d b y a c e rta in p ro d u c tiv e an d e c o n o m ic a c tiv ity s h o u ld b e im p o s e d u p o n its o rig in a to r, th e re b y fa v o u rin g th o se p ro d u c e rs w h o h a ve a v o id e d c a u s in g s u c h d a m a g e - e c o n o m ic fu n c tio n - 7.
C o n c lu d in g , it is n o t re a lis tic to d is re g a rd th e "p a th o lo g ic a l" re g u la tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t ju s t b e c a u s e its d a m a g e is n o t d e s ira b le a n d th is is s tre s s e d b y B e tle m , a c c o rd in g to w h o m " it is b e c o m in g in c re a s in g ly c le a r th a t e n v iro n m e n ta l la w o f th e c o m m a n d a n d c o n tro l ty p e is a lo n e in s u ffic ie n t fo r a n e ffe c tiv e p ro te c tio n a n d e n h a n c e m e n t o f n a tu re a n d th e e n v iro n m e n t"8.
1 .2 . T h e Aim o f t h e Th e s is
1 .2 .1 . T h e M a in Q u e r ie s
T h is th e s is n o t o n ly c o n s id e rs th e d iffe re n t p o s s ib le s y s te m s o f c iv il lia b ility fo r e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e b u t a ls o , b y c o n s id e rs th e e x is tin g le g a l in s tru m e n ts o r p ro p o s a ls in E u ro p e and trie s to a n a ly s e th e m a in p ro b le m s ra ise d by th e a c a d e m ic a n d in s titu tio n a l d e b a te a ro u n d e a c h o f th e m . S in c e a g e n e ra l c o m p a ris o n o f a ll n a tio n a l le g a l s y s te m s w o u ld b e a ta s k to o v a s t fo r th e e x te n t o f th is w o rk th e th e s is w ill lim it its e lf to th e h a rm o n is a tio n e ffo r t th a t is b e in g m a d e in E u ro p e .
T h e re fo re , it w ill m a in ly a n a ly s e a n d c o m p a re th e p o te n tia l fu tu re s y s te m s o f c iv il lia b ility fo r e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e in E u ro p e , n a m e ly th e E E C D ra ft D ire c tiv e o n C iv il
7
S e e R u d ig e r L u m m e rt,"Trends in Environmental Policy and Law: Changes in
concepts
of
civil
liability1
,
8
S ee G e rrit B e tle m ,"Civil liability for transfrontier pollution
r , in In te rn a tio n a l E n v iro n m e n ta l L a w a nd P o lic y S e rie s , G ra h a m & T ro tm a n , L o n d o n , 1993, p p . 7 ;C H A P T E R 1 INTROD UCTION
14
L ia b ility fo r W a ste a n d its s u b s e q u e n t G re e n P a p e r w ith th e C o u n c il o f E u ro p e C o n v e n tio n on C iv il L ia b ility fo r D a m a g e ca u se d b y D a n g e ro u s A c tiv itie s .
1.2.2.
Main questions which will not be referred to
A lth o u g h th e a p p ro a c h o f th is th e s is c o u ld a ls o in c lu d e a d is c u s s io n w h e th e r E u ro p e a n E n v iro n m e n ta l L a w s h o u ld b e h a rm o n is e d o r n o t, it w ill b e im p lic itly c o n s id e re d th a t th e re g u la to ry d iffe re n c e s in th is fie ld b e tw e e n e a ch M e m b e r S ta te c o n trib u te to th e in c re a s in g d e g ra d a tio n o f th e E u ro p e a n , if n o t g lo b a l, e n v iro n m e n t, a n d , fu rth e rm o re , h in d e rs th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a C o m m o n M a rk e t9.
S in c e th e in te re s t o f th e th e s is lie s m o re in p riv a te la w re m e d ie s a s e ffic ie n t in s tru m e n ts to c o m p e n s a te p o llu tio n v ic tim s , th e re s e a rc h w ill n o t in c lu d e S ta te a n d /o r in te rn a tio n a l lia b ility , b e c a u s e th e s e d e a l m a in ly w ith issu e s o f p u b lic a n d p riv a te in te rn a tio n a l law 10. N e v e rth e le s s , th e im p o rta n c e o f th e B ru s s e ls C o n v e n tio n a n d o th e r re le v a n t issu e s o f p riv a te in te rn a tio n a l la w w ill b e b rie fly re fe rre d to .
1 .3 . Co n f ig u r a t io n o f t h e Th e s is
1.3.1.
Organisation
T h is in tro d u c tio n is d iv id e d in to th re e c h a p te rs , in c lu d in g th is fir s t o n e w h ic h b ro a d ly p re s e n ts th e o b je c tiv e o f th e w o rk , fo llo w e d b y th e 2 n d C h a p te r, w h ic h a n a ly s e s th e d e fin itio n o f e n v iro n m e n t a n d e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e g iv e n b y th e
9
C o n firm in g th e n e e d fo r u n ifo rm lia b ility s y s te m s s e e a g a in P e te r W e tte rs te in10
O n s ta te lia b ility fo r tra n s b o u n d a ry e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e se e T h o m a s G e h rin g a n d M a rk u s J a c h te n fu c h s , "Liability for Transboundary Environmental Damage?
in E u ro p e a n J o u rn a l o f In te rn a tio n a l L a w , v o l. 4 , n2 1 , 19 93 , p p . 9 2 -1 0 6 ; s e e a ls o Id a K o p p e n ,HEnvironmental
Liability in a European perspective?
in E U I W o rk in g P a p e rs E P U n2 9 1 /1 2 w h o g e n e ra lly e la b o ra te s o n th e m a in in te rn a tio n a l lia b ility re g im e s ; v e ry im p o rta n t th e p a p e rs o f th e H a g u e C o n fe re n c e o n P riv a te In te rn a tio n a l L a w ,”Note on the law applicable to civil liability for environmental damage”,
P re lim in a ry D o c u m e n t n 2 9 o f M a y 1 9 9 2 ;C H A P T E R 1 INTRODUCTION
15
a b o v e -m e n tio n e d le g a l in s tru m e n ts a n d p ro p o sa ls, a n d fin a lly th e 3 rd C h a p te r, w h ic h a im s to s h o w th e u s e fu ln e s s o f c iv il lia b ility in s tru m e n ts in th e c o m p e n s a tio n o f p o llu tio n v ic tim s .
T h e s e c o n d p a rt o f th e th e s is is a lso d iv id e d in to th re e c h a p te rs . C h a p te r 4 w ill m a k e a b rie f c o m p a ris o n b e tw e e n th e d iffe re n t p o s s ib le sys te m s o f c iv il lia b ility - fa u lt, s tric t a n d /o r risk lia b ility - a n d s u m m a ris e th e ir m a in c h a ra c te ris tic s . C h a p te r 5 w ill th e n s p e c ify th e m a in le g a l o p tio n s ta k e n b y th e E u ro p e a n C o m m u n ity in th e fo rm u la tio n o f a h a rm o n is e d s y s te m o f c iv il lia b ility fo r e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e in g e n e ra l, n a m e ly b y p re s e n tin g its re fle c tio n s a n d re s u lts re g a rd in g th e D ra ft D ire c tiv e o n C iv il L ia b ility a nd th e c o n c lu s io n s m a d e in th e G re e n P a p e r. L ik e w is e , C h a p te r 6 w ill try to s h o w th e a ffin itie s a n d d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th e C o u n c il o f E u ro p e C o n v e n tio n a n d th e E C 's p re s e n t p o s itio n o n th e s u b je c t b y a n a ly s in g a n d e v a lu a tin g th e C o n v e n tio n 's m a in c h a ra c te ris tic s a n d le g a l c h o ic e s .
F in a lly , in th e c o n c lu s io n I w ill tr y to e la b o ra te o n th e s p e c ific a s p e c ts o f e a c h le g a l in s tru m e n t th a t s h o u ld b e u s e d in th e c o n c e p tio n o f a h a rm o n ise d s y s te m o f e n v iro n m e n ta l lia b ility in E u ro p e .
1 .3 .2 . O u tlo o k
A s an e a rly e n v iro n m e n ta l la w y e r sa id , "th e p ro b le m o f th e re s to ra tio n a n d m a in te n a n c e o f a liv e a b le e n v iro n m e n t is , to a la rg e e x te n t, th e p ro b le m o f th e c o n tro l o f a d m in is tra tiv e a g e n cie s b y th e c o u r ts " 11. T h is s ta te m e n t d e n o te s th a t a lo n g w ith th e in s tru m e n ts o f c iv il lia b ility th e p ro te c tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t a ls o d e p e n d s o n th e ju d ic ia l c o n tro l o f p u b lic a u th o ritie s . T h e a d m in is tra tiv e b ra n c h o f th e S ta te is m o s tly c o n tro lle d th ro u g h its a d m in is tra tiv e c o u rts , a n d th e re fo re a d m in is tra tiv e lia b ility
11
S e e S iv e , "S o m ethoughts of an Environmental Lawyer in the Wilderness of
C H A P T E R 1 INTRODUCTION
16
s h o u ld a ls o ha ve b e e n c o n s id e re d in th is w o rk b u t its lim ite d e x te n t d o e s n o t a llo w a n a d e q u a te stu d y o f s u c h is s u e . I w ill try to d e m o n s tra te th e e ffic ie n c y o f c iv il lia b ility in s tru m e n ts to a d e q u a te ly c o m p e n s a te a n d p re v e n t e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e , e v e n th a t c a u s e d b y p u b lic a u th o ritie s .
CHAPTER 2
DEFINITIONS USED IN THE THESIS
2 .1 . De f in it io n o f t h e En v ir o n m e n t
A s th e G re e n P a p e r 1 2 3 s tre s s e d , th e c o n c e p t o f e n v iro n m e n t n e e d s to b e d e te rm in e d in o rd e r to d e fin e d a m a g e to th e e n v iro n m e n t, th e la tte r d e fin itio n b e in g o f g re a t im p o rta n c e in th e d e c is io n w h e th e r o r no t s u c h d a m a g e c a n b e c o m p e n s a te d fo r v ia a c iv il lia b ility a c tio n .
In itia lly , w h e n e n v iro n m e n t n o rm a tiv e re fe re n c e s w e re s c a rc e , th e d o c trin e d id n o t c o n c e iv e th e e n v iro n m e n t as a w h o le b u t ra th e r d iv id e d it in to s e v e ra l d iffe re n t n o tio n s . F o r e x a m p le , G ia n n in i u n d e rs to o d it in th re e d iffe re n t sen ses: n a tu ra lis tic , m e a n in g th e n a tu ra l e le m e n ts (la n d s c a p e s , c u ltu ra l a s s e ts a n d h is to ric a l c e n tre s , n a tu ra l re s o u rc e s ) w h o se m a in te n a n c e is le g a lly c o n s id e re d ; s p a tia l, m e a n in g th e g e o g ra p h ic a l s p a c e s s u b je c t to le g a l p ro te c tio n a g a in s t p o llu tio n ; a n d , fin a lly , in an u rb a n is tic s e n s e .
1
"C o m m u n ic a tio n fro m th e C o m m is s io n to th e C o u n c il a n d P a rlia m e n t a n d th e E co n o m ic S o c ia l C o m m itte e : G re e n P a p e r o n R e m e d yin g E n v iro n m e n ta l D a m a g e ", C O M (9 3 ) 4 7 fin a l, B ru s s e ls 1 4 /5 /9 3 , p p . 10;2
S e e F ra n c e s c a P e s te llin i, in fra n o te , re fe rrin g to a le g a l d e b a te b e tw e e n th e u n ita ry th e o ry w h ic h c o n s id e re d th e e n v iro n m e n t a s an u n iq u e g o o d a n d th e a to m is tic th e o ry a c c o rd in g to w h ic h th e e n v iro n m e n t w a s m a d e o f a p lu ra lity o f g o o d s ;3
G ia n n in i M .S ., nAmbiente:
saggio sui diversi suoi aspetti giuridici',
in R iv is ta T rim e s ta le D iritto P u b b lic o ", 1 9 7 3 , p p . 15 e S s .;C H A P T E R 2
D E F I N I T I O N S U S E D IN T H E T H E S I S
1 8
M o re re c e n tly , th e o p in io n s h a v e d iv e rg e d a b o u t th e e x te n t o f th e d e fin itio n o f e n v iro n m e n t and th re e p o s s ib le c o n c e p ts h a v e b e en a s c e rta in e d : a b ro a d o n e , w h ic h w o u ld in c lu d e n o t o n ly th e b io lo g ic a l a sp e cts b u t a ls o th e s o c ia l, c u ltu ra l a n d e c o n o m ic a l a sp e cts th a t in v o lv e a hum an b e in g ; a re s tric tiv e o n e , lim ite d to th e n a tu ra l e le m e n ts th a t s u rro u n d a h u m a n life , a n d , fin a lly , a n o rm a tiv e c o n c e p t, w h ic h a ls o in c lu d e s th e le g a l n o rm s re g u la tin g th e n a tu ra l e n v iro n m e n t4.
2.1.1,
In Community Law
W o rk in g th ro u g h th e e n o rm o u s q u a n tity o f e n v iro n m e n ta l in s tru m e n ts th a t th e C o m m u n ity has e n a c te d o v e r th e p a st tw e n ty y e a rs , o n e co m e s to th e s a m e c o n c lu s io n a s fo r in te rn a tio n a l la w , i.e . th a t e a c h s p e c ific in s tru m e n t g iv e s , im p lic itly o r e x p lic itly , its p a rtia l d e fin itio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t. A lth o u g h o n e o f th e m a in o b je c tiv e s o f th e 1957 T re a ty o f R o m e w as "th e c o n s ta n t im p ro v e m e n t o f th e liv in g a n d w o rk in g c o n d itio n s ", it d id n o t in c lu d e a n y e x p lic it re fe re n c e to th e e n v iro n m e n t o r to its p ro te c tio n 5.
N e v e rth e le s s , th e n e e d to re g u la te th e e n v iro n m e n t a n d e s ta b lis h g u id e lin e s fo r its p ro te c tio n w a s so o n fe lt, in itia lly in th e fie ld o f p ro d u c t a n d in d u s tria l s ta n d a rd s . F u rth e rm o re , th e h a rm o n is a tio n o f th e M e m b e r S ta te la w s in th e fie ld o f e n v iro n m e n ta l la w w as in itia lly b a s e d o n fo rm e r a rtic le 1 0 0a o f th e 1 9 5 7 T re a ty , in o rd e r to e n s u re th e fre e c irc u la tio n o f g oo d s n e c e s s a ry fo r th e "e s ta b lis h m e n t a n d fu n c tio n in g o f th e c o m m o n m a rk e t". L a te r on, th e o b je c tiv e o f "im p ro v e m e n t o f th e liv in g c o n d itio n s " w as u s e d to fu rth e r b a se e n v iro n m e n ta l le g is la tio n in a rtic le 2 3 5 e,
4 P ro fe s s o r G o m e s C a n o tilh o ,"
Procedimento Administrativo e defesa do ambienter,
in R e v is ta d e L e g isla g ä o e J u ris p ru d é n c ia d e nfi 3 7 9 9 , p p .2 8 9 -2 9 0 c itin g M e s s e rs c h m id t,n
Umweltabgaben als Rechtproblerrf,
B e rlin , 19 86 ; M .K Io e p fe r,"Umweltrechf
, M ü n ch e n , 1 9 8 9 ; H o p p e /B e c k m a n n ,nUmweftrechf,
M ü n c h e n , 1 9 8 9 ;5 S e e L u d w ig K rä m e r,
”
Focus on European Environmental
Lauf,
C h a p te r 1, P a rt 2 , c o n firm in g th a t in th e E E C T re a ty o f 1957 th e re w a s n o in d iv id u a l rig h t to a n e n v iro n m e n t, n o t e v e n a c a ta lo g u e o f fu n d a m e n ta l in d iv id u a l rig h ts a n d fre e d o m s ;C H A P T E R 2
D E F I N I T I O N S U S E D IN T H E T H E S I S
1 9
w h ic h e n a b le d th e C o u n c il to ta k e a c tio n to a c h ie v e th is o b je c tiv e o f th e C o m m u n ity a lth o u g h th e T re a ty h a d n o t e x p lic itly p ro vid e d fo r th e n e c e s s a ry p o w e rs.
O n ly re c e n tly , w h e n th e D ra ft D ire c tiv e o n C iv il lia b ility fo r D a m a g e c a u s e d b y W a s te w a s b e in g d is c u s s e d 6, th e P a rlia m e n t p ro p o s e d a n a m e n d m e n t in w h ic h it d e fin e d th e e n v iro n m e n t a s "th e su m o f th e e a rth 's b io tic and a b io tic n a tu ra l re s o u rc e s , s u c h a s a ir, w a te r, s o il, flo ra a nd fa u n a o r a n y p a rt th e re o f
7.
H o w e v e r, th e C o m m is s io n , c o n s id e rin g th a t n o d e fin itio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t had b e e n g iv e n b y C o m m u n ity la w u n til th e n , d id n o t a d o p t th e P a rlia m e n ts d e fin itio n in its a m e n d e d p ro p o s a l8.2 .1 .2 . In In te r n a tio n a l L a w
U s u a lly e n v iro n m e n t is d e fin e d in th e s e v e ra l in te rn a tio n a l in s tru m e n ts w ith v a rio u s "n u a n c e s ", ta k in g in to a c c o u n t th e d iffe re n t ty p e s o f p o llu tio n w h ic h a re to b e re g u la te d , a n d u s u a lly e a c h in te rn a tio n a l o rg a n is a tio n a n d /o r p ro g ra m u se s its o w n d e fin itio n . F o r e xa m p le , th e "C o n s e il In te rn a tio n a le d e L a n g u e F ra n ç a is e " d e fin e d th e e n v iro n m e n t a s "th e to ta lity , in a c e rta in m o m e n t, o f a ll th e p h y s ic a l, c h e m ic a l, b io lo g ic a l a g e n ts a n d o f th e s o c ia l fa c to rs w h ic h m a y h a v e a d ire c t o r in d ire c t, m e d ia te o r im m e d ia te e ffe c t o n h u m a n b e in g s o r h u m a n a c tiv ity " 9.
P ro b a b ly , th e 1972 D e c la ra tio n o f S to c k h o lm w a s th e fir s t to g iv e a s o m e w h a t d e fin itio n o f e n v iro n m e n t b y a ffirm in g th a t th e w o rld 's n a tu ra l re so u rce s - a ir, w a te r, e a rth , la n d , flo ra and fa u n a a n d e s p e c ia lly th e a re a s c o n s id e re d to b e n a tu ra l e c o s y s te m s - s h o u ld b e p re s e rv e d in th e in te re s t o f th e p re s e n t a n d fu tu re
6 S e e c h a p te r 5 o n C o m m u n ity L a w fo r fu rth e r d e v e lo p m e n ts
7 A m e n d m e n t n o 8 o f P a rlia m e n ts 2 n d R e p o rt,
infra
n o te0 S e e a rtic le 2 /1 o f th e A m e n d e d P ro p o s a l a nd th e E x p la n a to ry S ta te m e n t o f th e P a rlia m e n ts 2 n d R e p o rt, in fra n o te s a n d
9 S a lv a to ri P a tti,
"Ambiente (tutela dvilisticajr
in D iz io n a ri d e l D iritto P riv a to , v o l. 1, D iritto C iv ile , p p . 3 1 ;C H A P T E R 2
D E F I N I T I O N S U S E D IN T H E T H E S I S
20
g e n e ra tio n s th ro u g h c a re fu l p la n n in g and m a n a g e m e n t. T h e m o s t re c e n t d e fin itio n c o m e s fro m th e re c e n tly a p p ro v e d C o u n cil o f E u ro p e C o n v e n tio n 10 w h ic h b ro a d ly d e fin e s e n v iro n m e n t a s in c lu d in g "n a tu ra l re so u rce s b o th a b io tic a n d b io tic , s u c h as a ir, w a te r, s o il, fa u n a a n d flo ra a n d th e in te ra c tio n b e tw e e n th e sa m e fa c to rs ; p ro p e rty w h ic h fo rm s p a rt o f th e c u ltu ra l h e rita g e ; a n d th e c h a ra c te ris tic a s p e c ts o f th e la n d s c a p e " 11. S tra n g e ly e n o u g h th is d e fin itio n d o e s n o t se e m to in c lu d e th e s o c ia l a n d e c o n o m ic a l e ffe c ts o f h u m a n a c tiv ity . i: />‘
T h e tre n d o f in te rn a tio n a l la w has b e e n to c h o o s e a b ro a d c o n c e p t o f th e e n v iro n m e n t in w h ic h th e e le m e n ts re s u ltin g fro m h u m a n a c tiv ity a re c o n s id e re d as re le v a n t a s th e n a tu ra l e le m e n ts . T h u s, th e in te rp re ta tio n o f th e C o u n c il o i E u ro p e C o n v e n tio n d e fin itio n m a y ra is e so m e d o u b ts a s to w h e th e r c e rta in d a m a g e s to th e in d iv id u a l's rig h t to a h e a lth y e n v iro n m e n t a re to b e in c lu d e d in its s c o p e o r n o t.
2.2.
D
efinition
of
E
nvironmental
D
amage
In g e n e ra l te rm s , m o s t c iv il la w y e rs d e fin e d a m a g e as any m a te ria l o r m o ra l in ju ry s u s ta in e d b y a p e rs o n a s re s u lt o f th e a c tiv itie s o f a th ird p a rty 12. N e v e rth e le s s , th is d e fin itio n o f d a m a g e m a y n o t b e b ro a d e n o u g h to c o v e r th e p o llu tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t, e s p e c ia lly in th o s e s y s te m s w h e re th e re is n o in d iv id u a l rig h t to th e e n v iro n m e n t. A s ha s a lre a d y b e e n m e n tio n e d it is n e c e s s a ry to d e fin e e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e in o rd e r to d e te rm in e w h ic h in ju ry ca n b e c o m p e n s a te d fo r v ia c iv il lia b ility la w . T h is b e c a u s e e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e d o e s n o t a lw a y s im p lic a te a n e c o n o m ic
10
C o u n c il o f E u ro p e C o n v e n tio n o n C iv il L ia b ility fo r D a m a g e re s u ltin g fro m a c tiv itie s d a n g e ro u s to th e E n v iro n m e n t, L u g a n o 2 1 /6 /1 9 9 3 ;11
S e e a rtic le 22 /1 0 o f th e C o n v e n tio n ;12
A n n e S u rz u r,"Liability
for
environmental
damage
in
Europe?,
in E u ro p e In fo rm a tio n S e rv ic e , 1 9 9 3 ;C H A P T E R 2
D E F I N I T I O N S U S E D IN T H E T H E S I S
21
lo s s o r a n in d iv id u a l in ju re d p a rty , c h a ra c te ris tic s w h ic h a re e s s e n tia l to th e e ffe c tiv e o p e ra tio n o f a c iv il lia b ility s y s te m .
F u rth e rm o re , e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e m a y h a v e s e v e ra l d is tin c tiv e fe a tu re s fro m th e d a m a g e s th a t a re le g a lly re le v a n t to th e tra d itio n a l s y s te m s o f c iv il lia b ility , n a m e ly p e rs o n a l in ju ry , p ro p e rty d a m a g e and e c o n o m ic lo s s . In fa c t, th e u n u s u a lly la rg e e x te n t o f th e d a m a g e , th e h u g e n u m b e r o f p o s s ib le o rig in a to rs o f th e d a m a g e , th e s e v e ra l in ju re d p e rs o n s a nd th e c o m p le x ity o f th e c a u s a l re la tio n s h ip s a re s o m e o f th e u n iq u e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e th a t m u st b e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t w h e n fo rm u la tin g its d e fin itio n .
T h e re fo re , th e re c e n t in s tru m e n ts re fe rrin g to e n v iro n m e n ta l lia b ility h a v e a c c e p te d th a t p o llu tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t m ay b e c a u s e d b y an in d u s tria l a c tiv ity , m a y re s u lt fro m s e v e ra l a c tiv itie s le d b y d iffe re n t o p e ra to rs 13 a n d /o r it m a y re s u lt fro m a c tiv itie s c a rrie d o u t in th e p a s t
2.2.1.
In Community Law
T h e G re e n P a p e r s tre s s e s th e n e e d n o t o n y l fo r a le g a l d e fin itio n o f e n v iro n m e n t b u t a ls o o f e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e d u e to th e im p o rta n c e in d e te rm in in g th e le v e l a t w h ic h a c e rta in p o llu tin g a c tiv ity w ill c o n s titu te a n "im p a irm e n t to th e e n v iro n m e n t". F u rth e rm o re , b y lim itin g th e re s to ra tio n a n d c o m p e n s a tio n m e a s u re s d u e fo r su c h im p a irm e n t th is d e fin itio n w ill a ls o b e lim itin g th e c o s ts th a t a n in ju re d p a rty c a n su e fo r v ia a c iv il lia b ility a c tio n 14.
A s in re la tio n to th e d e fin itio n o f e n v iro n m e n t th e s e v e ra l C o m m u n ity D ire c tiv e s a n d /o r R e g u la tio n s a ls o d e fin e d a m a g e to th e e n v iro n m e n t a c c o rd in g to th e ty p e o f p o llu tio n th e y s e e k to re g u la te . N e v e rth e le s s , w h e n a n a ly s in g th e s e s e v e ra l
13 E x a m p le s o f th e s e ty p e s o f c h ro n ic o r c u m u la tiv e p o llu tio n c a n b e se e m in th e C O s e m is s io n s in to th e a tm o s p h e re ; se e A n n e S u rzu r, p p . 6;
C H A P T E R 2
D E F I N I T I O N S U S E D IN T H E T H E S I S
2 2
C o m m u n ity law in s tru m e n ts th e q u e stio n s till re m a in s a s to w h e n th e c o n c e p t o f d a m a g e to th e e n v iro n m e n t in c lu d e s d a m a g e to p e rs o n s o r p ro p e rty a n d w h e n it o n ly c o n s id e rs th e im p a irm e n t o f th e e n v iro n m e n t a s s u c h .
T h is is a lso o n e o f th e d o u b ts th e C o m m is s io n 's p ro p o s a l fo r a D ire c tiv e o n C iv il L ia b ility ca use d b y W a s te trie s to c la rify . A lth o u g h it s ta rts b y d e fin in g in ju ry to th e e n v iro n m e n t "as a n y s ig n ific a n t a n d p e rs is te n t in te rfe re n c e in th e e n v iro n m e n t ca u se d b y a m o d ific a tio n o f th e p h y s ic a l, c h e m ica l o r b io lo g ic a l c o n d itio n s o f w a te r, s o il a nd a ir" 15, it a ls o c o n s id e rs n e c e s s a ry th e c o m p e n s a tio n o f d e a th o r p h y s ic a l in ju ry a n d o f d a m a g e to p riv a te p ro p e rty 16. It se e m s as if it d is tin g u is h e s tw o d iffe re n t c o n c e p ts : a s tric te r o n e o f "in ju ry " to th e e n v iro n m e n t a s s u c h , a n d a b ro a d e r o n e w h ic h a lso in c lu d e s p e rso n a l d a m a g e s . T h e s e p e rso n a l d a m a g e s a re a ls o to b e c o m p e n s a te d w h e n th e p riv a te p ro p e rty o f th e in ju re d p e rs o n h a s b e e n s u b je c t to d e s tru c tio n o r to d e te rio ra tio n .
T h e use o f th e te rm "m o d ific a tio n " w as c ritic is e d b y th e E S C 17 w h ic h s tre s s e d th a t m o d ific a tio n s c a n a lso b e o f a p o s itiv e n a tu re a n d e v e n re s u lt in a n im p ro v e m e n t o f th e e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s . S uch p o s itiv e m o d ific a tio n s s h o u ld b e p ro m o te d ra th e r th a n p e n a lise d , a c ritic is m c o n firm e d b y th e P a rlia m e n t, w h o s u g g e s te d in s te a d th e u s e o f th e te rm "d e te rio ra tio n "18. N o t o n ly w a s th is s u g g e s tio n a d o p te d in th e fin a l v e rs io n o f th e P ro p o sa l, bu t a ls o th e te rm "im p a irm e n t to th e e n v iro n m e n t" s u b s titu te d th e te rm "in ju ry to th e e n v iro n m e n t",
T h e new co n ce p t o f im p a irm e n t to th e e n v iro n m e n t is n o lo n g e r d e fin e d a s th o se in te rfe re n c e s w ith th e e n v iro n m e n t w h ich a re "s ig n ific a n t a n d p e rs is te n t", b u t re fe rs o n ly to s ig n ific a n t d e te rio ra tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t to a v o id le a v in g o u t th e te m p o ra ry
15 S e e a rtic le 2 /1 d) o f th e O rig in a l C o m m is s io n s P ro p o s a l, in fra n o te
16 S e e a ls o C h a p te r on C o m m u n ity la w
17 O p in io n on th e p ro p o s a l fo r a C o u n cil D ire c tiv e o n C iv il L ia b ility fo r d a m a g e c a u s e d b y W a ste in O J n2 C 2 5 1 ,4 /1 0 /1 9 8 9 , p p . 3 ;
C H A P T E R 2
D E F I N I T I O N S U S E D IN T H E T H E S I S
2 3
in te rfe re n c e s , a s it d id b e fo re 19 20. T h is a m e n d m e n t is o f s o m e im p o rta n c e , s in c e th e n a tio n a l le g is la to r and ju d g e m a y n o t ig n o re th o s e e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e s w h o s e e ffe c ts a re o n ly te m p o ra ry , a s it c o u ld b e fo re . N e v e rth e le s s , th e c o n c e p t o f s ig n ific a n t d e te rio ra tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t s till le a v e s a d a n g e ro u s m a rg in o f d is c re tio n : w h e n w ill a c e rta in d a m a g e to th e e n v iro n m e n t be c o n s id e re d s ig n ific a n t o r w h e n w ill it b e c o n s id e re d n e g lig ib le a n d th e re b y n o t w o rth y o f c o n s id e ra tio n u n d e r th is lia b ility s y s te m ?
R e tu rn in g to th e G re e n P a p e r , it sta te s th a t "a le g a l d e fin itio n o f d a m a g e to th e e n v iro n m e n t is o f fu n d a m e n ta l im p o rta n c e , s in c e su c h a d e fin itio n w ill d riv e th e p ro c e s s o f d e te rm in in g th e ty p e a n d sc o p e o f th e n e c e s s a ry re m e d ia l a c tio n and th u s th e c o s ts th a t a re re c o v e ra b le v ia c iv il lia b ility ". A n im p o rta n t c o n c lu s io n to b e re a c h e d is a t w h a t p o in t p o llu tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t c a n be c o n s id e re d a n e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e , to b e c o m p e n s a te d b y c iv il lia b ility .
2.2.2.
In International Law
W ith in in te rn a tio n a l la w th e re a re th re e d iffe re n t le v e ls o f ru le s re g a rd in g e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e , n a m e ly th o s e re la tin g to in te rn a tio n a l re s p o n s ib ility fo r w ro n g fu l c o n d u c t 21, fo r in ju rio u s c o n s e q u e n c e s a ris in g o u t o f a c ts n o t p ro h ib ite d b y in te rn a tio n a l la w , a n d a ls o th e n a tio n a l o r h a rm o n is e d ru le s o n c iv il lia b ility fo r s p e c ific h a z a rd o u s a c tiv itie s 22.
19S e e a rtic le 2 /1 d ) o f th e A m e n d e d P ro p o s a l;
20 S e e a b o v e n o te 2 ;
21 S e e a rtic le 21 o f th e E n v iro n m e n t P ro te c tio n a n d S u s ta in a b le D e v e lo p m e n t o f th e E x p e rt G ro u p o n E n v iro n m e n ta l L a w o f th e W o rld C o m m is s io n o n E n v iro n m e n t a n d D e v e lo p m e n t w h o s e p a ra g ra p h 1 e s ta b lis h e s th a t" a S ta te is re s p o n s ib le u n d e r in te rn a tio n a l la w fo r a b re a c h o f a n in te rn a tio n a l o b lig a tio n re la tin g to th e u s e o f a n a tu ra l re s o u rc e o r th e p re v e n tio n o r a b a te m e n t o f a n e n v iro n m e n ta l in te rfe re n c e ";
22 S e e P re fa c e to
"International Responsibility for Environmental Harnf,
e d ite d b y F ra n ce sco F ra n c io n i and T u lio S c o v a z z i, In te rn a tio n a l E n v iro n m e n ta l L aw a n d P o lic y se rie s ;C H A P T E R 2
D E F IN IT IO N S U S E D IN T H E T H E S I S
2 4
F u rth e rm o re , th e s c o p e o f lia b ility o f th e s e v e ra l in te rn a tio n a l in s tru m e n ts is u s u a lly lim ite d to th e d a m a g e ca u se d b y s p e c ific e c o n o m ic a c tiv itie s a n d th e re fo re th e d e fin itio n o f e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e is c lo s e ly c o n n e c te d w ith th e m e a n in g g iv e n to th e te rm p o llu tio n , w h ic h in in te rn a tio n a l la w h a s b e e n in te rp re te d as th e "in tro d u c tio n b y m a n , d ire c tly o r in d ire c tly , o f s u b s ta n c e s o r e n e rg y in to th e e n v iro n m e n t re s u ltin g in d e le te rio u s e ffe c ts o f a n a tu re to e n d a n g e r th e h u m a n h e a lth , liv in g re s o u rc e s a n d e co syste m s, d e te rio ra te n a tu ra l p ro p e rtie s , a n d im p a ir o r in te rfe re w ith a m e n itie s a n d o th e r le g itim a te u s e s o f th e e n v iro n m e n t"23 24 25. A c c o rd in g ly , e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e in its b ro a d e s t m e a n in g in c lu d e s in ju ry to p e rs o n a l h e a lth a n d p ro p e rty a n d im p a irm e n t to th e e n v iro n m e n t p e rs e .
2JL 2J*
___
tnJtie Council <?t Eurcpe.CanxeatjQD
S im ila r to th e C o m m u n ity le g a l in s tru m e n ts , th e C o n v e n tio n d e fin e s d a m a g e a s in c lu d in g d a m a g e to in d iv id u a ls , th e im p a irm e n t to th e e n v iro n m e n t a n d th e c o s ts o f p re v e n tiv e m e a s u re s ta k e n to m in im is e th e d a m a g e a n d fu rth e r lo s s o r d a m a g e th e re o f re la te d . In o rd e r fo r s u c h d a m a g e to b e c o m p e n s a te d it m u s t re s u lt fro m th e d a n g e ro u s n a tu re o f th e a c tiv ity , n a m e ly fro m th e h a z a rd o u s p ro p e rtie s o f th e s u b s ta n c e s , fro m g e n e tic a lly m o d ifie d o rg a n is m s o r m ic ro -o rg a n is m s , o r fro m w a s te .
A s in th e p ro p o s e d E E C D ire c tiv e d a m a g e to in d iv id u a ls in c lu d e s n o t o n ly th e ir p e rs o n a l in ju ry a n d d e a th b u t a ls o lo ss o r d a m a g e to th e ir p ro p e rty . A lth o u g h th e
23 F o r e x a m p le , s e e th e p o in t o f th e G re e n P a p e r th a t re fe rs to th e C o n v e n tio n on T h ird P a rty L ia b ility in th e F ie ld o f N u c le a r E n e rg y (P a ris 1 9 6 0 ) a n d to th e In te rn a tio n a l C o n v e n tio n o n C iv il L ia b ility fo r O il P o llu tio n D a m a g e (B ru s s e ls 1960) w h ic h d e fin e s d a m a g e to th e e n v iro n m e n t m e a n s th e lo s s o r d a m a g e c a u s e d o u ts id e th e s h ip c a rry in g o il o r th e c o n ta m in a tio n re s u ltin g fro m th e e s c a p e o r d is c h a rg e o f o il fro m th e s h ip , w h e re v e r s u c h e s c a p e a n d d is c h a rg e m a y o c c u r, a n d in c lu d e s th e co st o f p re v e n tiv e m e a s u re s a n d fu rth e r lo s s o r d a m a g e c a u s e d b y p re v e n tiv e m e a s u re s .
24 S e e a rtic le 12 o f th e C o rp u s o f P rin c ip le s a n d R u le s R e la tiv e to th e P ro te c tio n o f th e E n v iro n m e n t in " L a
Pollution Transfrontîére et le Droit International
b y th e A c a d é m ie d e D ro it In te rn a tio n a l d e la H a ye ;C H A P T E R 2
D E F I N I T I O N S U S E D IN T H E T H E S I S
2 5
C o n v e n tio n in c lu d e s in th e d a m a g e to p e rs o n a l p ro p e rty , its d e s tru c tio n a n d /o r d e te rio ra tio n , it e x c lu d e s fro m c o m p e n s a tio n th e d a m a g e to th e in s ta lla tio n its e lf o r to p ro p e rty u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f th e o p e ra to r o f th e s ite 26, th e re b y b e in g m o re re s tric tiv e th a n th e E E C p ro p o s e d D ire c tiv e .
U n lik e th e D ra ft D ire c tiv e , th e C o n v e n tio n d o e s n o t d e fin e im p a irm e n t o f th e e n v iro n m e n t, b u t it lim its th e c o m p e n s a tio n fo r su ch im p a irm e n t to th e c o s ts o f m e a s u re s o f re in s ta te m e n t ta k e n o r to b e ta k e n
27.
T h e s e m e a su re s m a y b e in th e fo rm o f ré in tro d u c tio n o f e q u iv a le n t co m p o n e n ts in to th e e n v iro n m e n t w h e n th e re in s ta te m e n t o r th e re s to ra tio n o f th o s e d a m a g e d o r d e s tro y e d c o m p o n e n ts o f th e e n v iro n m e n t is im p o s s ib le .F u rth e rm o re , th e C o n v e n tio n a ls o in clu d e s in its d e fin itio n o f d a m a g e th e c o s ts o f p re v e n tiv e m e a s u re s a n d a n y lo s s o r da m a ge ca u s e d b y th e s e m e a su re s . B y fu rth e r d e fin in g p re v e n tiv e m e a s u re s a s "a ny re a s o n a b le m e a su re s ta k e n b y a n y p e rs o n " to p re v e n t a th re a t o f d a m a g e o r to a v o id its w o rs e n in g th e C o n v e n tio n a c k n o w le d g e s th e a d v a n ta g e s o f th e s e p re v e n ta tiv e a c tio n c la u s e s . A lth o u g h th e s e p re v e n tiv e m e a s u re s a re o n ly c o m p e n s a te d if th e y a re re a s o n a b le , a n o tio n w h ic h is le ft to th e c o u rts ' in te rp re ta tio n , s u c h c la u s e s e n c o u ra g e a c tio n to b e ta k e n a fte r th e re le a s e o f th e h a rm fu l s u b s ta n c e b u t b e fo re th e o c c u rre n c e o f th e d a m a g e . 26 27 28 29 30 26 S e e a rtic le
2^7
b) o f th e C o n v e n tio n a n d p o in t 3 5 o f th e E x p la n a to ry R e p o rt 27 S e e a rtic le 2K?
c) o f th e C o n v e n tio n ; 28 S e e a rtic le 2 ^ 8 o f th e C o n v e n tio n a n d p o in t 4 0 o f th e E x p la n a to ry R e p o rt; 29 S e e a rtic le 2 ^ /7 d) o f th e C o n v e n tio n ; 30 S e e a rtic le 9 s o f th e C o n v e n tio n a n d p o in t 41 o f th e E x p la n a to ry R e p o rt;CHAPTER 3
ROLE OF CIVIL LIABILITY IN THE PREVENTION OF
ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE
3.1.
I
ntroduction
A c c o rd in g to s e v e ra l a u th o rs , e s p e c ia lly c o m m u n ity law a u th o rs , p riv a te ly in itia te d litig a tio n p la y s o n ly a m in o r ro le in th e p ro te c tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t, m a in ly d u e to th e p ro c e d u ra l d iffic u ltie s th a t it u s u a lly e n c o u n te rs . In fa c t, th e p ro c e d u ra l d iffic u ltie s p riv a te p e rs o n s fa c e in d iffe re n t c o u n trie s w ith re g a rd to a c c e s s to e n v iro n m e n ta l ju s tic e v a ry fro m th e re fu s a l to g iv e s ta n d in g to p riv a te o rg a n is a tio n s , w h ic h a re u s u a lly b e tte r p re p a re d to s u p p o rt th e fin a n c ia l b u rd e n o f g o in g to c o u rt, to th e le g a l c o n fig u ra tio n o f its c iv il lia b ility re g im e , w h ic h in m a n y c o u n trie s h a s s till n o t d e v e lo p e d fro m th e tra d itio n a l fa u lt lia b ility re g im e \ H o w e v e r, if p o llu te rs a re o n ly c o n tro lle d b y p u b lic a u th o ritie s , th e p re c a u tio n a ry p rin c ip le and th e p o llu te r p a ys p rin c ip le m a y b e s o m e w h a t d is to rte d .
A c c o rd in g to a c e rta in d o c trin e th e m a in o b je c tiv e o f a n y c iv il lia b ility s y s te m is to e q u a lly d is trib u te w e a lth s in c e th e e x te m a lis a tio n o f re p a ra tio n costs w o u ld m e a n a
1 S e e D e h o u sse ,
supra
n o te , re fe rin g th e ro le o f th e E C J in re s tru c tu rin g th e n a tio n a l p ro c e d u ra l sys te m s , fo r e x a m p le in th e C a seFrankovich
w h e re it w a s re c o g n is e d th a t th e d iffe re n t in th e re m e d ie s a v a ila b le a t n a tio n a l le v e l, a ffe c ts th e e x te n t to w h ic h in d iv id u a ls c a n re ly o n th e rig h ts d e riv e d fro m C o m m u n ity la w ;C H A P T E R 3
R O L E O F C I V I L L IA B I L I T Y IN T H E P R E V E N T I O N O F E N V I R O N M E N T A L D A M A G E
2 7
d e p riv a tio n o f rig h ts o f th e p o llu tio n v ic tim in fa v o u r o f th e b e n e fit o f th e ris k c r e a to r 2. T h e re fo re , w h e n d e c id in g fo r a s p e c ific lia b ility re g im e , th e le g is la to r - e ith e r th e c o m m u n ity , in te rn a tio n a l o r n a tio n a l le g is la to r - s h o u ld b e a w a re o f th e c o n tra s tin g g o a ls to b e a c h ie v e d th ro u g h s u c h re g u la tio n . If, w h e n re g u la tin g e n v iro n m e n ta l lia b ility , p re fe re n c e is g iv e n to a w a rd in g co m p e n sa tio n to v ic tim s , th e n s u c h a s y s te m m a y n o t b e a v e ry e ffe c tiv e p o llu tio n d e te rre n t. O n th e o th e r hand, a s y s te m th a t im p o s e s s u ffic ie n t lia b ility c o s ts to d e te r a p o te n tia l p o llu te r fro m c a u s in g e n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e m a y le a d to s itu a tio n s o f o v e rc o m p e n s a tio n 3.
F u rth e rm o re , it is v e ry im p o rta n t to discuss w h e th e r c iv il lia b ility in s tru m e n ts a re a d e q u a te to co m p e n s a te th e im p a irm e n t o f c e rta in e le m e n ts o f th e e n v iro n m e n t w h ic h ca n n o t b e a p p ro p ria te d , s u c h a s th e se a o r th e a tm o s p h e re 4. In o th e r w o rd s , if c e rta in e n v iro n m e n ta l a s p e c ts a re c o n s id e re d g o o d s o f th e p u b lic d o m a in , ca n its im p a irm e n t b e c o n s id e re d d a m a g e s o a s to b e c o m p e n s a te d fo r v ia c iv il lia b ility la w ?
3.2.
P
osition
of
the
E
uropean
C
ommunity
2 S e e G ü n th e r D o e ke r a n d T h o m a s G e h rin g ,
"Private or International liability for
transnational
environmental
damage - The
precedent
of
conventional
liability
regimes?
in J o u rn a l o f E n v iro n m e n ta l L a w , v o l. 2, n2 1 ,1 9 9 0 , p p . 2 ;
3 S ee in re la tio n to th e g o a ls o f th e E E C D ra ft D ire c tiv e , L in d a M .S h e e h a n , *
The
E E C 'sproposed Directive on Civil Liability for
damage caused by waste: taking over
when
prevention fails?,
in E c o lo g y L a w Q u a rte rly , v o l. 18, 1 9 9 1 , n2 2 , p p . 4 3 9 , n o te 25 1;4 F o r e x a m p le , in re la tio n to Ita lia n L a w s e e F ra n ce sca P e s te llin i in
"Environmental
Liability
in
a
European
Perspective?,
E U I W o rkin g P a p e rs E P U n2 9 1 /1 2 re fe rin g to th e in itia l c a s e la w o f th e C o u rt A c c o u n ts w h o c o n sid e re d th e e n v iro n m e n t a s a n n iq u e goo d d e s tin e d fo r c o lle c tiv e e n jo y m e n t nd c o n s e q u e n tly o n ly th e S ta te , as re p re s e n ta tiv e o f s u c h c o lle c tiv ity , h a d th e rig h t to c o m p e n s a tio n ;C H A P T E R 3
R O L E O F C IV IL L IA B IL IT Y IN T H E P R E V E N T I O N O F E N V IR O N M E N T A L D A M A G E
2 8
A c c o rd in g to T h ie ffry , c iv il la w In s tru m e n ts s h o u ld o n ly in te rv e n e w h e n th e C o m m u n ity m a rke t m e c h a n is m s 5 a nd th e in c e n tiv e s to s u b s c rib e to v o lu n ta ry e n g a g e m e n ts are in e ffic ie n t. C o n se q u e n tly, h e c o n s id e rs th a t th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e "p o llu te r pays" p rin c ip le th ro u g h c iv il lia b ility s h o u ld be th e m o st ra d ic a l in s tru m e n t o f C o m m u n ity e n v iro n m e n ta l p o lic y 6 7. T h is k in d o f p o s itio n show s th a t th e E u ro p e a n C o m m u n ity has b e e n m a in ly co n ce rn e d a b o u t th e need fo r a n e ffe c tiv e im p le m e n ta tio n and e n fo rc e m e n t o f e n v iro n m e n ta l D ire c tiv e s and R e g u la tio n s
1.
In fa c t, th e C o m m u n ity a tte n tio n fo c u s e s on th e e n fo rc e m e n t ro le o f M e m b e r S ta te s a n d o f th e ir lo c a l a u th o ritie s a s g u a ra n te e s th a t th e e n v iro n m e n t is e ffe c tiv e ly p ro te c te d 8.F u rth e rm o re , n o t o n ly p re v e n tio n is c o n s id e re d a fu n d a m e n ta l p rin c ip le in th e p ro te c tio n o f th e e n v iro n m e n t 9 b u t th e p a rtic ip a tio n p rin c ip le and th e p o llu te r p a ys p rin c ip le a re also b e in g in c re a s in g ly a d o p te d . S u ch a "p o llu te r p a y s " p rin c ip le w as in itia lly re fe rre d to b y th e C o m m u n ity in its 3 rd E n v iro n m e n ta l P ro g ra m m e in th e fo llo w in g m a n n e r: "th e p rin c ip le ’s p ro v is io n s fo r c h a rg in g p o llu te rs fo r e n v iro n m e n ta l p ro te c tio n -re la te d c o s ts im p e ls p o llu te rs to re d u c e th e le v e l o f p o llu tio n c a u s e d b y
