A
Abstinence-based drug abuse treatment, 564 Academic medical centers, 191, 196, 295–296 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
See also Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection
in homeless people, 24 prevalence of
in developing countries, 214, 215 in New York City, 546
urban-rural differences in, 214, 215 sexual minority groups’ response to, 88–89 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
service organizations, 89
ACT (Assertive Community Treatment), 30, 35 ACT-UP, 88–89
Adaptation, human, 244–248 Addiction counseling, 567 Adolescents
depression in, 165 drug use among
effect of social norms and attitudes on, 140 in female adolescents, 115
gender differences in, 133 prevalence of, 128, 137
in racial/ethnic minority adolescents, 133–134
homeless, 20, 21
exposure to violence, 23 mortality causes in, 24 pregnancy in, 24
as homicide victims, 217–218
immigrant, health risk behaviors of, 109–110 obesity in, 164
pregnancy in, school-related risk factors for, 158
psychological disorders in, 165–168 smoking rate, 65
as street youth hepatitis in, 22
Adolescents (cont.)
injection drug use in, 140
physical or sexual victimization of, 21 sexually transmitted diseases in, 22 sexual minority, 86–87
tuberculosis in, 21–22 suicide by, 165–166 Advocacy planning, 384
Afghan immigrants, employment of, 104 Africa
infant mortality rates, 208 malaria in, 212–214
marijuana use prevalence in, 128 neighborhood and household poverty in,
338
urbanization of, 201 waste disposal access in, 211 water supply access in, 211
African-American communities, impact of highway systems on, 387–388 African Americans
adolescents smoking rate, 65 suicide rate, 166 children
asthma in, 51 injuries in, 162 lead poisoning in, 73 drug use among, 133–134
effect of urban renewal policies on, 363–364 health care access and utilization among,
64–65
health inequalities experienced by, 364 health risk behaviors of, 64
heart disease mortality rate, 181 infant mortality rate, 63, 64, 159 job loss rate, 47
kinship ties, 72
lack of health insurance coverage, 65–66 males, “codes of the streets” of, 364 mental illness among, 54
575
Index
African Americans (cont.) middle-class, 365–366
mortality causes among, in New York City, 540–541, 542, 543
older adult
chronic disease in, 183 disabled, 184 as homeowners, 187 housing conditions of, 187
human immunodeficiency virus infection in, 185
preventive health care for, 191 poverty rates, 44, 45, 66–67
residential segregation of, 48, 71–73, 365–366, 367, 387–388
living conditions associated with, 65 in New York City, 552
socioeconomic status, 69, 70
stroke (cerebrovascular disease) in, 54–55, 56 unemployment of, 47, 364–365
urban sociological studies of, 363–366 working-class, 365–366
African immigrants, communicable diseases in, 106
African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC), 350–351, 353
Agency for Health Care Research and Quality (AHRQ), 298–299, 300
Agriculture, community-supported, 247 AIDS. See Acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome
Airborne infections, population density-related transmission of, 486
Airborne particulates, adverse health effects of, 417–419
Air pollution
adverse health effects of asthma, 48, 160, 161, 512 case control studies of, 416 in children, 414
cohort studies of, 414–415 cross-sectional studies of, 413–414 ecological studies of, 411–413
pediatric lung function development, 419 time-series analysis of, 411–413
in developing countries, 212
exposure assessment approaches to, 409 indoor, 404, 512
causes of, 504
in developing countries, 212 in Nepal, 225, 226
as mortality cause, 7 in Nepal, 224–226 outdoor, 404
causes of, 504
effect on pediatric respiratory health, 411
“hot spots” in, 407–408
as lung cancer risk factor, 410–411 racial/ethnic minorities’ exposure to, 73–74 as respiratory disease cause, 48
Air quality, 486
Alaska Natives, health care access and utilization among, 64–65
Alcohol, availability in urban areas, 158 Alcohol abuse
as homelessness risk factor, 30 in homeless people, 24 in immigrants, 114 onset age of, 138
poverty as risk factor for, 70–71
in sexual minority group members, 86, 92 Allegheny County (Pittsburgh), Pennsylvania,
527 Allergens
as air pollutants, 404
as asthma risk factor, 420, 421, 422–423 Allergies, as asthma risk factor, 161 Allocative efficiency, 441
Allostatic load, 218 Alternative medicine, 249 Alzheimer’s disease, 183
Ambulatory sensitive conditions (ASC), 301 Amebiasis, in immigrants, 106
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 510
American Cancer Society, 547
American-Indian adolescents, suicide rate, 166
American Indians drug use among, 133
health care access and utilization among, 64–65
health risk behaviors of, 64 infant mortality rate, 63, 64 morbidity rates, 64
American Journal of Public Health, 398 American Planning Association, 507 American Psychiatric Association, 167 Americans with Disabilities Act, 87 Amphetamine use
onset age of, 131 prevalence of, 128
rural-urban comparison, 138 Anderson, Elijah, 364, 376
Anthropological perspective, on urban health, 243–258
emic and etic perspectives, 252–253 human adaptation concept, 244–248 human variation concept, 248–251 race as variable concept, 251–252 research methodology, 253–255 urban environment-related stressors,
245–248
Anti-discrimination laws, affecting sexual minority groups, 82
Antioxidants, 417
Antiretroviral therapy, for drug users, 566, 568, 569
Anxiety, in developing countries’ populations, 218
Appendicitis, 112 Areal measures, 323 Aristotle, 463
Arsenic, as water contaminant, 229 Arthritis, among older adults, 182, 183 Ascariasis, among immigrants, 106 Asia
infant mortality rates, rural-urban comparison, 208
malaria in, 212
neighborhood and household poverty in, 338
population growth, 3 urbanization of, 201
urban population growth, 3, 4 waste disposal access in, 211 water supply access in, 211
Asian-American children, asthma among, 112 Asian Americans, drug use among, 133–134 Asian immigrants
older-adult, 178–179 tuberculosis in, 106–107 Asian Pacific Islanders
human immunodeficiency virus education program for, 118
Project HAPI (Health for Asians and Pacific Islanders) for, 118, 119
transgender, 87 Asians
diabetes mellitus in, 64 health risk behaviors of, 64 Assaults, on homeless people, 23
Assertive Community Treatment (ACT), 30, 35 Asthma, 246
air pollution-related, 48, 160, 161, 512 in homeless people, 24, 28, 34 immune response in, 161
“inner-city,” in children, 34, 51–52, 160–162, 405, 419–423
allergens-related, 422–423 diesel exhaust-related, 423 in homeless children, 24, 34 Inner-City Asthma Study of, 417, 420 obesity-related, 164
secondhand tobacco smoke-related, 423 in older adults, 186
risk factors for, 85, 160, 161, 164, 423, 504 Asthma education and prevention programs,
school-based, 161–162
Atlanta, Georgia, air pollution in, 73, 512 Attitudes, social, effect on drug use, 140, 142 Australian National Drug Strategy Household
Survey, 129, 131, 132 Australians
drug use onset age among, 129, 131 injection drug use among, 138 Automobile ownership, 393
Automobile travel, effect of urban design on, 389
Avoidable hospital conditions (AHCs), 311
B
Bacterial infections, among injection drug users, 562
Baltimore, Maryland Healthy Start Initiative, 160
Moving to Opportunity Demonstration Project, 163–164
poverty rate in older adults, 178 Bangkok, Thailand
manufacturing in, 488 population growth, 2–3
Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), 392, 540
Bellow, Saul, 1
Benzo[a]pyrene, 409–410 biomarkers for, 408 carcinogenicity of, 424 Bicycling, by older adults, 189 Biological heritage, of cities, 490 Biomarkers
for diesel exhaust, 408, 423
for environmental pollutant exposure, 408–409
for secondhand tobacco smoke exposure, 408, 422
Bipolar disorder, among homeless people, 21 Birmingham, Alabama, 387–388
Birth rate, adolescent, 65
Birth weight, neighborhood effects on, 370–371, 372–373
Bisexuals. See Sexual minority groups Boston, Massachusetts
airborne particulate monitoring in, 419 air pollution “hot spots” in, 407–408 Indochinese Psychiatry Clinic, 117–118 Moving to Opportunity Demonstration Project,
163–164
pediatric violence-related injury rate, 163 Boston Medical Center, Boston HealthNet (Pilot)
Project, 299 Bourdieu, Pierre, 371 Breast cancer
in immigrants, 110 in lesbians, 91
as mortality cause, in New York City, 547 British Columbia, antiretroviral therapy database,
568
Bronchitis, air pollution-related, 226 Brookings Institution, 305
“Brownfields,” 386–387, 387n, 512 Building codes, 507–508, 510, 511 Buildings. See also Housing
“healthy,” 486–487 height of, 483 high-rise, 383, 483
as shelter and protection, 486 Built environment, 5–6
description and categorization of, 395–396
Burkina Faso, malaria in, 213–214 Burnham, Daniel, 513
C
Calcutta, India, population growth rate, 3 Cali, Colombia
adolescent mental health in, 219
household and neighborhood income levels in, 338–339
California, Proposition 187, 116 Cambodian refugees, 370
mental health services for, 117–118
Canada, homeless people’s health care access in, 29
Cancer. See also specific types of cancer environmental factors in, 112 in immigrants, 110–112 mortality rates, 63–64 in older adults, 181, 182, 183 prevention of, 118, 547 in sexual minority groups, 91
smoking-related, in homeless people, 23 Cancer prevention programs, for immigrants,
118 Cancer screening
cultural factors in, 254 in immigrants, 110–111 in New York City, 547
Cardiopulmonary diseases, air pollution-related, 512
Cardiovascular disease as mortality cause
in New York City, 540 in older adults, 181 mortality rates, 63–64 in older adults, 181, 182, 183 risk factors, 504
Cardiovascular disease prevention programs, in New York City, 545–546
Cardiovascular disease screening, among older adults, 182
Caregivers, older adults as, 192
Caribbean, urban population growth in, 4 Car ownership, 393
Case-control studies, 415–416 Case-crossover studies, 416
Causality, in economic development planning, 392–393
Cayton, Horace, 364
Center for Immigrant Health, 119 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC), 525
Task Force on Community Preventive Services, 541
Youth Risk Behavioral Surveillance System (YRBSS), 550–551, 552
Central America, marijuana use prevalence in, 128
Central-American immigrants, 109, 114
Centralization, of cities, 482
CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act), 158–159, 512
Cerebrovascular disease. See also Stroke as mortality cause, 206
Cervical cancer, 547 Chicago, Illinois
African-American health disparities in, 364 civic improvement investments in, 513 immigrant population, 104
neighborhood disorder evaluations in, 375 Project on Human Development in Chicago
Neighborhoods (PHDCN), 372 same-sex couples in, 80
Urban Immigrant Outreach Health Program, 118
Chicago Department of Health, 305
Chicago Urban Poverty and Family Life Survey, 365
Chief executive officers (CEOs), pay ratio with average workers, 57
Childbirth, 339, 340 Child Health Supplement, 51
Child mortality rate. See also Infant mortality rate in India, 322
in Nairobi, 205 in Nepal, 223, 224 Children, 155–176
asthma in, 34, 51–52, 160–162, 405, 419–423 allergens-related, 422–423
diesel exhaust-related, 423 in homeless children, 24, 34 obesity-related, 164
secondhand tobacco smoke-related, 423 factors affecting urban health of, 156–170
health insurance coverage, 156–157 nutrition, 158
pollution, 158–159 social capital, 157–158 socioeconomic status, 157–158
urbanization and industrialization, 158–159 height-for-age scores in, 208–209
homeless, 24 asthma in, 24, 34 immigrant
chronic diseases in, 112 immunization of, 108–109 infectious diseases in, 246 injuries in, 162–164 lead poisoning in, 73, 159
as asthma cause, 161
as cognitive impairment cause, 48 in immigrant children, 112 Port Pirie study of, 415 mental health of, 165–168
mortality causes among, in developing countries, 206
nutrition in, 247
obesity in, 164–165, 217, 513
Children (cont.)
as percentage of total population, 155 racial/ethnic minority, 155
respiratory diseases in, in Nepal, 225, 226 urban living-related health benefits for,
168–169
Children’s Health Study, 415, 419 Chinese immigrants, 110
illegal, 105–106
Chinese-Vietnamese immigrants, 104 Chlamydia trachomatis infections, 22, 109
Cholera, relationship with population density, 483 Cholesterol, management of, 545, 546
Chronic diseases
in developing countries, 206–207, 216–217 in homeless people, 22–23
in immigrants, 110–115 in older adults, 181, 182
management and prevention of, 184–185, 194
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease air pollution-related, 212, 415
in Nepal, 225
in homeless people, 22, 23 as mortality cause
in developing countries, 206 in older adults, 181
Churches, as sources of social support, 72 Cities
centralization of, 482–483 concentration of, 483
definition and classification of, 303–304, 482 disease vectors in, 482–483
diversity of, 1, 90, 483–484, 522
as information and communication centers, 484
with large populations, 203 mechanization of, 484 political authority of, 484–485 worldwide growth of, 2–3 Cities in Civilization (Hall), 297
City Repair Project, Portland, Oregon, 459–476 background to, 459–463
case study of, 470–476
community organizing in, 463–464 community outreach in, 465, 467 design process in, 467–468
disability accommodation in, 468–469 permitting process in, 468–469 social capital and, 463–464
City University of New York (CUNY), 526, 529, 530
Sophie Davis Biomedical Center, 536 Urban Health Collaborative, 533 Civil Rights Act of 1964, 73 Clean Air Act, 418, 512 Clean Air Task Force, 73 Clean Water Act, 512
Cleveland, Ohio, neighborhood boundaries in, 323
Climate, health effects of, 7 in homeless people, 26 Clinton Administration, 368 Cocaine use
gender differences in, 133 in immigrants, 114 incidence of, 129 onset age of, 132, 138 prevalence of, 128
urban-rural comparison of, 137, 138 racial/ethnic differences in, 133 in sexual minority group adolescents, 86
“Codes of the streets,” 364 Code switching, 384
Cognitive-behavioral therapy, school-based, 167 Cohort studies, 414–415
Cold injuries, among homeless people, 23, 26 Coleman, James, 371–372
Collaboration, 386
Collective efficacy, 72, 210, 212, 324, 346 Colonoscopy, 547
Colorectal cancer in immigrants, 110 as mortality cause
in New York City, 540, 542, 547 in racial/ethnic minorities, 540, 542 risk factors for, 110
Committee on Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter, 418
Committee on the Institutional Means for Assessment of Risks to Public Health, 425 Communicable diseases. See Infectious diseases Communities
collective efficacy within, 72 peri-urban, 245
Community, definition of, 248 Community-based health programs, for
immigrants, 118–119 Community drop-in centers, 565 Community effects, in health, 324–326 Community Guide to Preventive Services, 541 Community health workers, 118
in India, 345
in malaria treatment projects, 213–214 training of, 524
in tuberculosis intervention projects, 212 Commuting
by automobile, 393
World Cities Project analysis of, 307 Compañeros en Salud (Partners in Health), 118 Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), 158–159, 512
“Concentration effects,” 67 Conflict, 386
Consumption, assessment of, 331, 332, 334 Contextual analyses, 264–265
Continuity of care, for drug users, 564 Contraceptive use, effect of social networks on,
320–321
Cooperation, 386
Coronary artery disease, World Cities Project analysis of, 310–311
Cost-benefit analysis, 442–443
Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), for urban health research, 431–453
alternatives to, 442–443 analytic methods in, 441
conceptual issues and definitions in, 433–435 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs),
434–435 discounting, 435
dominant interventions, 435
incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER), 435, 441, 442, 447
quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), 434–435, 439, 441, 443, 444, 446, 448–449 controversies in, 443–449
data sources in, 440 elements of, 437–440
costs, 438–439 life expectancy, 439 modeling, 438, 440
quality of life weights, 439–440, 443–444 strategies, 437–438
equity weights in, 449 example of, 432–433 social justice and, 446
technical and allocative efficiency in, 441–442 transferability of, 446–448
uncertainty in, 442, 450
urban health perspective and, 432 Cost minimization analysis, 442 Cotinine, 408, 422
Crack cocaine, 30, 135–136 Crime, 246–247
in Nepal, 227
older adults’ fear of, 186
in racial/ethnic minority communities, 69, 70 relationship with
lack of affordable housing, 509 physical environment, 504, 507 at transit stations, 389–391, 395 violent
in developing countries, 218
pregnant women’s exposure to, 372–373 Crime prevention. See also Law enforcement; Law
enforcement officers older adults’ role in, 191
Criminal prosecution, of drug users, 563 Cross-sectional studies, 266, 413–414 Cuban Americans, drug use among, 133–134 Cultural capital, 371
Cultural centers, cities as, 490–491 sexual minority groups’ role in, 90
“Cultural consonance,” 246 Cultural heritage, of cities, 490 Culture, as stressor, 247–248 Culture of Cities (Mumford), 297 Cyclones, 487
D
Daily-adjusted life years (DALYs), 434–435 injury-related loss of, 217
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, malaria in, 213 Databases, at health care facilities, 568 Day care, for older adults, 194–195
Death and Life of Great American Cities (Jacobs), 297 Decentralization, 204–205, 492
Declaration of Primary Health Care, 489 Degenerative diseases, 246
Deinstitutionalization, of the mentally ill, 29–30 Dementia, 183, 185
Dementia patients, feeding tube use in, 195 Demographic Health Surveys (DHSs), 208, 209,
211, 329, 336
Demographic Surveillance Systems (DSSs), 348, 353
Dengue fever, 9 Depression
in children and adolescents, 165 in developing countries’ populations, 218 in homeless people, 21
in immigrants, 113 in older adults, 183
in racial/ethnic minorities, 460 Spectrum Study of, 254–255 as suicide risk factor, 165
Dermatologic disorders, among homeless people, 23–24, 28
Detroit, Michigan, immigrant population, 104 Developing countries, urban health in, 201–222
community organizations’ role in, 324 comparison with rural health, 317–318 demographic changes and, 201, 202–203 economic development and, 201, 202–204 epidemiological transition in, 206–207 health care services and, 209–210
health care system underutilization and, 318 health risks and risk factors in, 210–219
accidents, violence, and injuries, 217–218 air pollution, 212
chronic diseases, 216–217
environmental threats to health, 210–211, 212
HIV/AIDS, 214 malaria, 212–214 mental health, 218–219 obesity, 216–217
reproductive health, 214–216 traffic accidents, 217 tuberculosis, 211–212 maternal mortality rates, 214–216 mortality causes, 206
political economic changes and, 201, 204–205 in poor populations, 317–357
longitudinal studies of, 346–354 neighborhood effects theory of, 319–326 poverty and living standards assessment for,
326–340
Developing countries, urban health in (cont.) role of social networks and social capital in,
320–321, 340–346 population growth and, 202–203 poverty assessment methods for, 326–340
at household level, 327–336
measures of the dynamics of poverty, 335–340 MIMIC (“multiple indicator, multiple cause”)
method, 330–331, 337 monetized measures, 327, 328–329
at neighborhood and community level, 336–340 new research in, 331–335
proxy variables-based measures, 329–331 social epidemiological perspective on, 317,
319–320
urban burdens of disease, 207–209 Dhaka, Bangladesh, population growth, 2–3 Diabetes mellitus, 504
in homeless people, 22–23 in New York City residents, 545 obesity-related, 164
in older adults, 182, 183
prevention and management programs for, 545, 546
in racial/ethnic minorities, 64 Diarrheal diseases, 206, 228, 229 Diesel exhaust, 161, 419, 423 Diet. See also Nutrition
of children, as obesity cause, 158, 164 as colon cancer cause, 110
in developing countries, 216–217 of disadvantaged urban residents, 489 effect of globalization on, 347
effect of zoning and land use laws on, 507 Diet-related diseases, 58, 110
Dioxin, 159
Diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus immunization, 108 Disability
definition of, 183
in older adults, 181, 183–184 in racial/ethnic minorities, 64
Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), 207–208, 434–435
Disadvantaged people diet of, 489
homelessness among, 27 Discounting, 435
Discrimination. See also Prejudice; Segregation economic consequences of, 69, 70
in quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) calculations, 444
racial
in health care, 57 health effects of, 48–49 housing-related, 48
toward sexual minority groups, 92. See also Homophobia
effect on health care access, 93 in employment, 90, 93–94 toward transgender people, 87–88
Disease vectors, in cities, 482–483 control of, 486–487
Dissimilarity Index (DI), 552
District of Columbia Redevelopment Act, 511 Diversity, of the urban environment, 1, 483–484,
522
sexual minority groups’ role in, 90 Domestic partnership laws, 82 Domestic (partner) violence
among same-sex couples, 92 in developing countries, 218 Dominant interventions, 435
Dominicans, cancer screening among, 254 Drake, St. Clair, 364
Drinking water, 7 in India, 492
in Nepal, 228–229, 230, 232 Driving, by older adults, 188–189 Drug abuse. See Drug use
Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) program, 144
Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), 143 Drug overdoses, 135
fatal, 134, 135, 141 prevention of, 144 in homeless people, 24, 31 law enforcement’s response to, 143 polydrug use-related, 129 racial/ethnic differences in, 134
Drug use, 127-154. See also Injection drug use;
specific drugs of abuse costs of, 127
definition of, 127 epidemiology of, 128–136
age of onset, 129, 131, 132–133 gender differences, 133 incidence, 129, 130
medical consequences, 134–136 polydrug use, 129
prevalence, 128
racial/ethnic differences, 133–134 gateway theory of, 132–133
in homeless people, 20, 21 among adolescents, 21 in immigrants, 114–115 legislation affecting, 166
psychiatric disorders associated with, 562 in transgender people, 87
in urban environments, 136–145
comparison with rural drug use, 137–138 inter- and intra-urban comparisons,
138–139
legislation affecting, 143–144 urban context, 139–144 Drug users
criminal prosecution of, 563 health services for
clinical services component, 567–568 goals and measurable outcomes in, 568–569,
570
Drug users (cont.)
models of health services delivery, 564–567 obstacles to, 563–564
staff safety and security issues in, 567 health status of, 562
Drug use treatment, 567 abstinence-based, 564
for incarcerated adolescents, 166–167
“low-threshold” programs, 565, 567 for opiates abuse, 142–143 rural-urban comparison of, 138 DuBois, W.E.B., 363
Durkheim, Emile, 363, 371–372 Suicide, 363, 371
E
Earthquakes, 7, 487 Eating disorders, 92
Ecological analyses and studies, 264, 410–413 Ecological efficiency, in urban neighborhoods,
492
Ecological model, of urban health, 363
“Ecologic fallacy,” 411 Ecology, urban, 363 Ecometrics, 375
Econometric models, 389
Economically-deprived populations, in urban environments, 43–61
health status and well-being of, 49–55 National Health Interview Survey data on,
52–55
strategies for improvement of, 55–58 structural and policy factors affecting,
46–49 poverty levels of, 44 as the working poor, 45
Economic development planning, 380, 381, 382, 388, 389, 392–394, 398
causality inference in, 392–393 hypothesis testing in, 393–394 Economic redevelopment, 511–512 Economy, urban, 488
Ecosystems, stable and sustainable, 487–488 Educational level
correlation with poverty level, 336 of older adults, 179, 181–182 of racial/ethnic minorities, 69
Education and training. See also Educational level;
Schools
of urban health professionals, 521–528 accrediting organizations for, 533–534 within centers or institutes on urban health,
531–532
continuing education, 529–530 experiential learning, 528
within health departments, 534–535 special programs, 528–529 specific competencies, 527–529 teachers, 524–525
Education and training (cont.)
through urban health collaboratives or networks, 532–533
within universities, 525–526, 529–531 Emergency department visits, by homeless people,
29
Employment. See also Unemployment
discrimination in, toward sexual minority group members, 90, 93–94
of immigrants, 104 of older adults, 190 Empowerment, 489–490 End-of-life care, 195
Environmental engineering, 192–193 for pedestrian-motor vehicle accident
prevention, 163
Environmental health studies, 403–429 case studies in, 417–424
airborne particulates, 417–419
“inner-city” asthma, 419–423 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
carcinogenicity, 423–424 exposure assessment in
approaches to, 408–410 biomarkers of exposure, 408–409 concepts and models of, 406–408 time-activity patterns, 406–407 modeling in, 406–408, 411 risk assessment in, 424–425 study designs, 410–417
case-control studies, 415–416 cohort studies, 414–415 cross-sectional studies, 413–414 ecological studies, 410–413
“ecologic fallacy” and, 411 experimental studies, 410 intervention studies, 416–417 randomized controlled trials, 416–417 small-area analysis, 413
surveys, 413
time-series analysis, 411–413
Environmental justice, 73–74, 373–374, 375–376, 405
for children, 159
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 158–159 Environmental protection laws, 512
Environment and Urbanization, 324 Epidemics, 259
Epidemiological transition, in urban health, 206–207
Epidemiology, 259–276 definition of, 259 key challenges to, 268–272 methodologies, 261–268
analytic considerations in, 267–268 contextual analyses, 264–265 cross-sectional analyses, 266 ecologic analyses, 264
epidemiologic approaches, 264–266 experimental analyses, 266–267
Epidemiology (cont.)
inter- and intra-urban comparative studies, 261, 262–263
longitudinal analyses, 266 multilevel analysis, 265–266
rural-urban comparative studies, 261–262 study designs, 266–267
roles in urban health research, 259–261 Equality, 489. See also Inequality
Equity, 488-489. See also Inequity planning research on, 396, 398 in urban planning, 381, 383–384 Ethiopia, “TB” clubs in, 212
Ethnicity, 252. See also Racial/ethnic minorities Ethnography, 253–254, 376
Europe, urban populations, 3, 4
European Community, Project Megapoles, 304 European Union, homeless population, 19 Evolution, human, 244
Exchange/voluntarism index, 372 Exercise. See also Physical activity
environmental obstacles to, 120 Experience Corps, 193
Experimental analyses, 266–267, 410
F
Fair Housing Act of 1968, 48, 73 Falls, by older adults, 182, 183, 185 Family Medical Leave Act, 94 Fast food restaurants, 71, 164 Fat, dietary, 216–217 Fecal occult blood testing, 111 Federal-Aid Highway Act, 510 Federal Housing Act of 1954, 508 Federal Housing Authority, 365, 505, 509 Feeding tubes, 195
Female-headed households, poverty levels of, 44, 45
Filariasis, 482–483
Filipinos, tuberculosis in, 107 Firearms
as pediatric injury cause, 163 as suicide method, 113, 166 Firm clustering, 368 Fiscal Disparities Act, 32 Florida
immigrant population, tuberculosis in, 107 older-adult population, 180
Food contamination, 406 with benz[a]pyrene, 409–410 in Nepal, 229–230, 232 Food insecurity, 58 Food production, 485, 486 Food programs, 565–566 Food safety, 486
Food sources, in urban areas, 485, 486, 512 effect of zoning and land use laws on, 507 Foot disorders, among homeless people, 23, 26 Foucault, Michel, 370
Frailty, in older adults, 182 Fraud, older adults as victims of, 186
“Free-under effect,” 32
From Neurons to Neighborhoods, 364 Frostbite, among homeless people, 23, 26
G
Gallbladder disease, obesity-related, 164 Gambling, 190
Gangs, Latino, 115
“Gay ghettos,” 80, 81, 82 Gay Men’s Health Crisis, 89 Gentrification, 71–72
Geographic Information System (GIS) technology, 373, 389, 396 Germany, homeless populations in, 19 Ghana, social networks in, 341, 343, 347 Ghettos, service-dependent, 30–31 Giardiasis, among immigrants, 106 Global Burden of Disease project, 207 Globalization, dietary effects of, 247 Global warming, 161
Golden Venture (ship), 105–106 Gonorrhea, among immigrants, 109
“Good city form,” 394–395 Governance, 484–485
definition of, 384
effect on urban planning, 381, 384–385 homeless people’s experiences with, 31–32 urban design research on, 396–397, 398 Government policies, affecting the urban physical
environment, 503–519
economic incentives for redevelopment, 505, 506, 511–512
environmental protection laws, 512 housing policy, 508–509
regarding government facilities, 512–514 transportation programs, 505, 506, 509–511 Graffiti, 375
Grassroots initiatives, 383, 384
Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council, 532 Green spaces, 7, 192–193
Grid-pattern, of city streets, 461–463 effect on automobile traffic, 389 historical background, 462–463 intersection repair strategy for, 463–476
background to, 459–463 case study of, 470–476
community organizing in, 463–464 community outreach in, 465, 467 design process in, 467–468
disability accommodation component of, 468–469
permitting process in, 468–469 social capital and, 463–464
“Grief syndrome,” 363
Group-level studies. See Neighborhood-level studies Growing Older in Four Worlds (Rodwin and
Gusmano), 311
H
Hallucinogen use
gender differences in, 133 in immigrants, 114 incidence of, 129 onset age of, 132 prevalence of, 128
urban-rural comparison of, 137, 138 Harlem, New York City
children’s diesel exhaust exposure in, 423 District Public Health Offices, 552, 553 older-adult mortality rates in, 181
Safe Kids/Healthy Neighborhood Coalition project, 163
Harvard University, School of Public Health, 374 Hate crimes, 91–92
Hazardous waste sites, 48, 158–159, 512 Health. See also Urban health
community-level processes affecting, 248 definitions of, 481
individual-level (micro-cultural) variables in, 250–251
poverty-related impairment of, 27 sociocultural influences on, 248–251 Health care
inadequate, 544
prejudice in provision of, 249–250 safety-net providers in, 298–299, 301 Health care access
barriers to, 300 by children, 156–157
effect of economic disparities on, 9 by homeless people, 28–29, 35 by older adults, 191
racial/ethnic disparities in, 64–66 by sexual minority group members, 85,
93–94 universal, 56–57
Health care expenditures, as percentage of Gross Domestic Product, 544
Health Care for the Homeless Programs, 25, 29 Health care resources, World Cities Project
analysis of, 307–308
Health care services, urban, 4–5, 9 Health care system
of developing countries, 209–210 primary purpose of, 492 Health care utilization
cultural factors in, 249 by older adults, 185
racial/ethnic disparities in, 64–66 Health departments. See also New York City
Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (DOHMH)
role of, 540–544
Health Education Resource Organization (HERO), 89
Health information, social network-based exchange of, 320–321
Health insurance coverage for children, 156–157 for older adults, 179
for the poor and underserved, 299 uninsured populations, 9, 56–57, 64, 65–66
children, 156–157 homeless people, 28–29 hospital admissions among, 301 immigrants, 115–117
in New York City, 310
racial/ethnic minorities, 65–66 safety-net providers for, 298–299, 301 sexual minority groups, 86, 93–94, 95 universal, 56–57
Health & Place, 366
Health-promoting strategies, of the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (DOHMH), 539–559
agenda-setting for, 539–559
Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), 540
for communities with greatest needs, 552–554 Community Health Survey, 540, 552 District Public Health Offices, 552–555 health care setting-directed strategies, 544–548 physical environment-directed strategies,
548–550
policy environment-directed strategies, 555–556 school setting-directed strategies, 550–552 Shape-Up New York program, 549, 553, 554 Take Care New York initiative, 544–548 Welcome Newborn program, 549 Health promotion
role of city authorities in, 484 training and practice for, 573–574 Health risk behaviors
among adolescent immigrants, 109–110 among racial/ethnic minorities, 64, 70–71 Health services research, 295–316, 456
avoidable hospitalizations, 301 comparative analysis in, 303–311
World Cities Project, 305–311 database development in, 305 with “inner-city” populations, 297–300 multidisciplinary approach in, 295 in practice variations, 301 research agenda for, 302–305 urban core unit analysis in, 305–311 Health status, 493
Healthy cities, definition of, 481 Healthy Cities project, 479–501
City Health Plan of, 480
concepts, definitions, and interpretations related to, 481–485
goals of, 481
principles of, 485–493
prerequisites for application of, 493–496 Healthy Start Initiative, 160
Hearing impairment, noise pollution-related, 7, 226
Heart disease. See Cardiovascular disease
“Heat islands,” 7, 397 Heat-related deaths, 7 Heat waves, 161, 187
Height for age scores, in developing countries, 208–209
Hemophilus influenza immunization, 108 Hepatitis
in homeless people, 21, 22 injection drug use-related, 139 in Nepal, 228, 229
Hepatitis B
in homeless people, 22 in homosexuals, 91 in immigrants, 106
injection drug use-related, 136 Hepatitis B vaccination, 91, 96, 108 Hepatitis C
in homeless people, 22 injection drug use-related, 136 Heroin addiction
as high-risk sexual behavior risk factor, 136 as homelessness risk factor, 30
incidence of, 129 onset age of, 129, 131, 132 prevalence of
gender differences in, 133 racial/ethnic differences in, 133
Heroin maintenance programs, 143, 144–145, 566 Heroin overdose, 143
Heterogeneity, socioeconomic, 323–324, 337, 338–339
High-rise buildings, 383, 483
High schools, Catholic, dropout rates in, 369 Highway systems. See also Transportation systems
impact on African-American communities, 387–388
Hippodamus of Miletus, 462
Hispanics. See also Latinas; Latinos; Mexican Americans
segregation of, 72 Hmong immigrants, 104 Home equity, 69 Homelessness, 3–4
chronic, 20 duration of, 32
effect on public health, 32–34 incidence of, 32
as poverty cause, 26–27 prevalence of, 19 risk factors for
disasters, 487
lack of affordable housing, 58, 509 psychiatric illness, 29–30
role of urbanization in, 3–4 Homeless people, 19–41
definition of, 19
health improvement strategies for, 34–36 hostility toward, 31
key health issues of, 20–25
Homeless people (cont.) populations of, 19, 25–26 psychiatric illness among
concurrent with substance abuse, 34–35 Continuum of Care treatment model of,
34–35
Housing First treatment model of, 35 stereotypes of, 20
urban environment-related factors affecting, 25–32
climate, 26
health care system, 28–30 migration, 26
population size, 25–26 poverty, 26–27
social welfare system, 27–28 urban geography, 30–31 urban governance, 31–32 Homeless shelter residents, 25–26
dermatologic disorders in, 23–24 mortality rate, 24
sexual or physical assaults on, 23
Homeless shelters, living conditions in, 28, 35 Home Mortgage Disclosure Act, 48
Home ownership
among older adults, 179, 187, 191 racial disparities in, 365–366
Homicide rates, in Latin America, 217–218 Homicide victims
children, 163 homeless people, 24 immigrants, 115 Homophobia, 86
effect on response to AIDS, 88 internalized, 82–83, 93, 94
Homosexuals. See Sexual minority groups Hookworm, 106
Hospice care, 195
Hospitals, closings and relocation of, 66 Hospital system, governance of, 385 Housing
affordable, 58, 383, 508–509 health effects of, 383, 486
in older adults, 187–188 high-rise, 383, 483 for the homeless, 33–34 for illegal immigrants, 104 low-income, 26–27, 508 for marginalized groups, 568 for older adults, 187–188, 193 population density in, 486 as shelter and protection, 486 substandard or hazardous, 58
New York City intervention program for, 549 Housing codes, 58, 507–508
Housing policies, 383, 508–509 racist practices in, 48
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection databases related to, 568
in developing countries, 214
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection(cont.)
rural-urban prevalence differences, 215 in drug users, 569
high-risk sexual behavior as risk factor for, 134–136
in homeless people, 21, 22, 24 in immigrants, 106, 109
injection drug use as risk factor for, 96, 134, 135–136, 562
rural-urban differences in, 138
low socioeconomic status as risk factor for, 157 as mortality cause
in developing countries, 206
racial/ethnic differences in, 540–541, 543 in Nepal, 227–228
in older adults, 185
in sexual minority groups, 83, 84, 86, 91, 185 in New York City, 552
transgender people, 87
sexual minority groups’ response to, 88–89 in sex workers, 87
transmission of, 8
social network-based, 340–341 Human immunodeficiency virus infection
prevention programs
for adolescent immigrants, 109–110 for immigrants, 118
in New York City, 546–547 for sexual minority groups, 96
Human immunodeficiency virus infection screening, prenatal, cost-effectiveness analysis of, 432–433, 436–437, 438–439, 440, 447, 449 Human Rights Campaign, 82
Hunter College, 375–376, 526, 529, 530 Hypertension, 246
in homeless people, 22 management of, 545–546 obesity-related, 164
in racial/ethnic minorities, 64
Hypothermia, among homeless people, 26 Hypothesis testing
in economic development planning, 393–394 in urban design, 395
I
Ideas, contagiousness of, 8
Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRAIRA), 116 Immigrants, 103-125. See also specific immigrant
groups
adolescent, health risks behaviors of, 109–110 assimilation of, 363
countries of origin of, 105 diseases in, 105–115
chronic diseases, 110–115 communicable diseases, 105–110 health care access and utilization among,
115–117, 119
Immigrants (cont.)
health promotion and preventive health programs for, 117–119
injuries in, 115
lack of health insurance coverage for, 115–117 older-adult, 178–179
as percentage of total population, 103 as percentage of total urban population, 104 with permanent resident status, 103 as political refugees, 103
sexual minority groups as, 86 with temporary resident status, 103
“undocumented” or “illegal,” 103–104 Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS),
104, 116 Immunization
of immigrant children, 108–109 of immigrants, 108
Incarcerated populations, HIV infection prevention programs for, 96
Incarceration, for drug-related offenses, 166 Income
correlation with mortality risk, 50–51, 362 poverty-level, 44, 45
World Cities Project analysis of, 306–307, 308–309, 310
Income growth, 43, 45 Income inequality, 43
Incontinence, in older adults, 182, 183, 185 Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER), 435,
441, 442, 447 INDEPTH network, 347 India
antenatal care in, 215–216 child mortality rate, 322
community health workers in, 345 drinking water supply, 492
mosquitoes as disease vectors in, 482–483 slum communities, 352
social networks in, 342 tuberculosis treatment in, 212
urban poor’s health care utilization in, 318 Indochinese Psychiatry Clinic, 117–118 Indonesian Family Life Survey, 349
Industrialization, waste disposal and, 158–159 Industrialized countries, poverty rates in,
55–56
Industrial Revolution, 504 Inequality, 8, 9
in economic and social well-being, 46, 47–48 in health, among African Americans, 364 perception of, 334–335
Inequity, 8–9, 322 Infant mortality
air pollution-related, 512
in developing countries, rural-urban comparison, 208
low social capital as risk factor for, 157 low socioeconomic status as risk factor for,
157
Infant mortality rates, 159–160 correlation with poverty rate, 322 in Nepal, 223, 224
in racial/ethnic minorities, 63, 64, 159, 160, 310 risk factors for, 159–160
in urban areas, 159–160
World Cities Project analysis of, 310 Infectious diseases, in urban areas
in developing countries, 206–207, 210–211 historical background to, 245–246 in homeless people, 21–22 in immigrants, 105–110
medical anthropological perspective on, 245–246
negative health externalities and, 320 population density-related transmission of, 49 spatial segregation-related transmission of, 8 Influenza, in older adults, 182, 185
Influenza immunization in older adults, 185, 191 prospective cohort studies of, 569
Informal economies, of racial/ethnic minority communities, 69–70
Infrastructure, decreasing investments in, 493, 494 Infrastructure, urban, 7
Inhalant use in adolescents, 128 gender differences in, 133 racial/ethnic differences in, 133 urban-rural comparison of, 137, 138 Injection drug use
effect of law enforcement on, 143 gender differences in, 133 as hepatitis risk factor, 136, 139 in homeless people, 22, 24, 31
among adolescents, 21
as human immunodeficiency virus infection risk factor, 96, 134, 135–136, 562 rural-urban differences in, 138 intervention programs for, 144–145 as mortality risk factor, 129
in racial/ethnic minorities, 134, 138–139 rural-urban comparison of, 138 Injection drug users
needle exchange programs for, 144, 566 Supervised Injection Sites for, 567 Injuries
in children, 162–164
as daily-adjusted life years loss cause, 207, 217 in developing countries, 217–218
in homeless people, 20, 23 as mortality cause, 24 in immigrants, 115
physical environment-related risk factors for, 504
Inner-City Asthma Study, 417, 420 Institute for Urban Health Research, 532 Institute of Medicine, 298, 534–535
Committee on Children, Health Insurance and Access to Care, 156
Institutional management, 380, 381, 385–386 urban design research on, 396–397, 398 Integration, 371–372
Intersection repair strategy, 463–476 background to, 459–463
case study of, 470–476
community organizing in, 463–464 community outreach in, 465, 467 design process in, 467–468
disability accommodation in, 468–469 permitting process in, 468–469 social capital and, 463–464
Intersectoral action, in urban health, 480, 494–495
Inter-urban comparative studies, 261, 262–263 of drug use, 138–139
Intervention studies, 416–417
Intra-urban comparative studies, 261, 263 of drug use, 138–139
Intra-urban spaces definition of, 270
neighborhoods as, 263, 270 Intra-urban units of analysis, 270–271 Intravenous drug use. See Injection drug use Ischemic heart disease, as mortality cause, 206
J
Jacobs, Jane, 371
Death and Life of Great American Cities, 297 Jails, 166
Japan, homeless populations in, 30 Japanese immigrants, 110
Jencks, Christopher, 366–367, 368, 369 Johns Hopkins University
School of Nursing, 525 Urban Health Institute, 531–532 Journal of Urban Health, 398 Justice
environmental. See Environmental justice social. See Social justice
Juvenile justice system, 166–167
K
Kaposi’s sarcoma, 91
Karachi, Pakistan, maternal mortality rates in, 215
Kenya, human immunodeficiency virus infection rates in, 214, 215
Khmer immigrants, 104
Kidnapping, of illegal immigrants, 104 Korean immigrants, 111, 114
L
Land use laws, 505, 506–507 Laotian immigrants/refugees, 104
mental health services for, 117–118 Larynx cancer, air pollution-related, 413
