Table of contents Introduction CHAPTER 1 - A brief history of theories for error interpretation 1.1

Table of contents

Introduction

CHAPTER 1 - A brief history of theories for error interpretation 1.1 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)

1.1.1 Habits

1.1.2 Strong vs. weak version

1.1.3 Error analysis and phonological studies 1.2 Creative Construction Hypothesis (CCH)

1.2.1 Creativity and the nativist perspective 1.2.2 Defining the hypothesis

1.2.3 Empirical studies and stages of acquisition 1.3 Interlanguage Hypothesis (ILH)

1.3.1 An early definition of ‘interlanguage’ 1.3.2 The interlanguage continuum

1.3.3 The need to communicate 1.3.4 Interlanguage phonology 1.4 Markedness

1.4.1 Markedness in first language acquisition 1.4.2 The typological approach

1.4.3 Three different uses of the markedness hypothesis CHAPTER 2 - Second language learning

2.1 The global village

2.2 Goals of second language acquisition 2.3 Variability in learner language

2.3.1 Input and output 2.3.2 Social factors 2.3.3 Psycholinguistic factors 2.3.4 Linguistic factors 2.3.4.1 Typological universals 2.3.5 Individual factors 2.3.5.1 Age 2.3.5.2 Aptitude 2.3.5.3 Motivation 2.3.5.4 Anxiety 2.3.5.5 Learning strategies 2.4 SLA and instruction

CHAPTER 3 - Learner corpora 3.1 Corpus linguistics

3.1.1 A definition of corpus linguistics 3.1.2 The aims of CL

3.2 The importance of computers in learner corpora 3.2.1 Software tools

3.3 The importance of learner data in SLA and FLT research 3.3.1 Learner corpora in SLA research

3.3.2 Learner corpora in FLT research 3.3.2.1 Native corpora and ELT

3.3.2.2 Pedagogical applications of using learner corpora 3.3.3 Interdisciplinarity

3.4 What does a learner corpus look like? 3.4.1 Non-specialist language 3.4.2 Monolingual vs. bilingual 3.4.3 Synchrony vs. diachrony 3.4.4 Written vs. spoken corpora

3.4.5 The different formats of learner corpora 3.4.6 Towards a definition of learner corpora 3.5 Linguistic analysis

3.5.1 Contrastive interlanguage analysis 3.5.2 Computer-aided error analysis 3.5.3 Computer analysis in the future CHAPTER 4 - The ISLE corpus

4.1 Personal interest

4.2 Procuring the ISLE corpus

4.3 The Interactive Spoken Language Education (ISLE) Project 4.3.1 The aim of the project

4.3.2 The speakers

4.3.3 The linguistic material 4.3.4 Recording procedures 4.3.5 Annotation

4.4 Analytic procedure

CHAPTER 5 - What does the ISLE corpus tell us about pronunciation errors? 5.1 Italian speakers

5.1.1 /ʊ/ pronounced as /u:/ 5.1.2 /ɜ:/ pronounced as /e/ + /r/ 5.1.3 /ə/ pronounced as /ɒ/

5.1.4 /ŋ/ pronounced as /ŋ/ + /g/ 5.1.5 /ɪ/ pronounced as /i/ 5.1.6 /e/ pronounced as /eɪ/ 5.1.7 Additional observations 5.2 German speakers 5.2.1 /z/ pronounced as /s/ 5.2.2 /ə/ pronounced as /ʊ/ 5.2.3 /ʌ/ pronounced as /ə/ 5.2.4 /v/ pronounced as /f/ 5.2.5 /w/ pronounced as /v/ 5.2.6 /ð/ and /θ/ pronounced as /s/ 5.2.7 Additional observations CHAPTER 6 - Conclusions References Appendix A Appendix B

List of tables

Table 1. CLC – specific design criteria (Granger, 2002) Table 2. Expanded design criteria

Table 3. Speaker sample (Menzel, et al., 2000) Table 4. Linguistic material in ISLE

Table 5. Entropic’s UK English phone set supplemented with the IPA symbol set

Table 6. Selected IPA consonant symbols

Table 7. Most difficult phones for Italian speakers Table 8. Most difficult phones for German speakers

List of figures

Figure 1. A computational model of L2 acquisition (Ellis, 1997) Figure 2. Data types used in SLA research (Ellis, 1994)

Figure 3. Kachru’s circles of English Figure 4. ELRA supply

List of acronyms

CAH Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis CALL Computer-Assisted Language Learning CCH Creative Construction Hypothesis CIA Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis CL Corpus Linguistics

EFL English as a Foreign Language

ELDA Evaluations and Language resources Distribution Agency ELRA European Language Resources Association

ELT English Language Teaching EOL English as an Official Language ESL English as a Second Language FLT Foreign Language Teaching ILH Interlanguage Hypothesis IPA International Phonetic Alphabet

ISLE Interactive Spoken Language Education L.A.D. Language Acquisition Device

SLA Second Language Acquisition UG Universal Grammar