29 Urinary Incontinence

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29

Urinary Incontinence

Eileen H. Callahan

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of the chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Diagnose urinary incontinence among older adults.

2. Differentiate the different types of urinary incontinence.

3. Develop and implement a plan of care for a patient with urinary incontinence.

4. Manage the symptoms of urinary incontinence.

512 Material in this chapter is based on the following chapters in Cassel CK, Leipzig RM, Cohen HJ, Larson EB, Meier DE, eds. Geriatric Medicine: An Evidence- Based Approach, 4th ed. New York: Springer, 2003: Timmons MC. Gynecologic and Urologic Problems of Older Women, pp. 737–754. Resnick NM. Urinary Incontinence, pp. 931–955. Selections edited by Eileen H. Callahan.

Case (Part 1)

S.K. is a 76-year-old woman who reports that she often has “accidents”

when she cannot make it to the bathroom in time. Even though this problem has bothered her for quite some time, she has not told you because she thought that it was part of “getting older.” She sheepishly admits that her solution is to wear diapers.

General Considerations

Urinary incontinence poses a major problem for the elderly, afﬂ icting 15%

to 30% of older people living at home, one third of those in acute-care

settings, and at least half of those in nursing homes (1). It is more common

in women. It predisposes to rashes, pressure ulcers, urinary tract infec-

tions, urosepsis, falls, and fractures (1–3). Frequently, urinary incontinence

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is not diagnosed because it is overlooked by the primary care physician and not discussed by patients (4,5). It is also associated with embarrass- ment, stigmatization, isolation, depression, and risk of institutionalization (1), as well as caregiver burden and depression (6). Finally, it costs more than $26 billion to manage in the United States in 1995 (7), exceeding the amount devoted to dialysis and coronary artery bypass surgery combined (7).

Age-Related Changes and Urinary Incontinence

Age-related changes, coupled with the increased likelihood that an older person will encounter an additional pathologic, physiologic, or pharmaco- logic insult, explains why the elderly are so likely to become incontinent.

Incontinence in an older person is often due to reversible conditions outside the lower urinary tract. Furthermore, treatment of these precipitating factors alone may be enough to restore continence, even in cases where there is coexisting urinary tract dysfunction (Tables 29.1 and 29.2).

Table 29.1. Age-related changes in the female urogenital tract

External genitalia Vagina Urethra and bladder

• Thinning and graying of • Vaginal atrophy inevitable • With aging and pubic hair in women w/o estrogen progressive

• Shrunken, wrinkled supplementation after hypoestrogenism, appearance of labia menopause. urethral functional majora • Changes can be reversed length and maximal

• Dryness and paleness of the with estrogen therapy urethral closure

labia minora. pressure decrease

• Erythema in the periurethral • Coitally active women • Urethral mucosa tissues have better preservation and bladder mucosa

• Clitoris prominent secondary of the vagina and have estrogen- to androgen predominance decreased degree of receptors; also in a hypoestrogenic woman vaginal atrophy subject to estrogen-

deprivation atrophy

Source: Adapted from Timmons MC. Gynecologic and Urologic Problems of Older Women.

In: Cassel CK, Leipzig RM, Cohen HJ, et al., eds. Geriatric Medicine, 4th ed. New York:

Springer, 2003:737–754.

Case (Part 2)

S.K. tells you that she has had diabetes mellitus for many years. On

review of systems, she says that her leg usually swells up and she fre-

quently gets up approximately three times at night to urinate. Her

medications include furosemide 20 mg daily, multivitamins 1 tablet

daily, and glyburide 2.5 mg daily.

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Differential Diagnosis

Acute/Transient Incontinence

Because of their frequency, reversibility, and association with morbidity, transient causes of incontinence should be diligently sought in every older patient in all settings. These seven reversible causes can be recalled using the mnemonic DIAPERS (Table 29.3) as follows:

Delirium

Incontinence may be an associated symptom that abates once the underly- ing cause of confusion is identiﬁ ed and treated. The patient needs medical rather than bladder management (6).

Infection

Infection causes transient incontinence when dysuria and urgency are so prominent that the older person is unable to reach the toilet before voiding.

Because illness can present atypically in older patients, incontinence is occasionally the only atypical symptom of a urinary tract infection. Asymp- tomatic bacteriuria, which is much more common in the elderly, however, does not cause incontinence. If asymptomatic bacteriuria is found on the initial evaluation, it should be treated and the subsequent symptoms recorded in the patient’s record to prevent future futile therapy.

Table 29.2. Age-related changes that may predispose to incontinence

• Bladder capacity and contractility decrease

• Bladder residual volume increases

• Involuntary detrusor contractions common

• Urine excretion at night increases, causing nocturia

• Estrogen decreases

• Prostate enlarges in men

• Urethral length decreases (in women)

Table 29.3. Causes of transient incontinence (38) Delirium

Infection

Atrophic urethritis/vaginitis Pharmaceuticals

Excessive urine output (diabetes, hypercalcemia) Restricted mobility

Stool impaction

Source: Adapted with permission from Resnick NM. Urinary Incontinence in the Elderly.

Medical Grand Rounds, vol 3. New York: Plenum, 1984. Reprinted as appears in Resnick

NM. Urinary Incontinence in Cassel CK, Leipzig RM, Cohen HJ, et al., eds. Geriatric

Medicine, 4th ed. New York: Springer, 2003.

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Atrophic Urethritis/Vaginitis

This pathology frequently causes lower urinary tract symptoms, including incontinence usually associated with urgency or a sense of “scalding”

dysuria, mimicking a urinary tract infection. In demented individuals, atrophic vaginitis may present as agitation. Atrophic vaginitis also can exacerbate or even cause stress incontinence. This responds to low-dose estrogen (e.g., 0.3–0.6 mg conjugated estrogen/day, orally or vaginally) (1).

Pharmaceuticals

Anticholinergic agents are used often by older people either by prescrip- tion or over-the-counter (OTC) (e.g., tricyclic antidepressants, antihista- mines). They cause or contribute to incontinence in several ways: provoke urinary retention; induce subclinical retention; increase residual volume;

decrease mobility and precipitate confusion; and intensify dry mouth, and the resultant increased ﬂ uid intake contributes to incontinence. Attempts should be made to discontinue anticholinergic agents, or to substitute ones with less anticholinergic effect.

Because the proximal urethra, prostate, and prostatic capsule all contain α-adrenergic receptors, urethral tone can be increased by α-adrenergic agonists and decreased by α-antagonists. α-Agonists include antihista- mines and decongestants (e.g., pseudoephedrine). α-Antagonists include antihypertensive medications (e.g., prazosin, terazosin). Because older individuals often fail to mention nonprescription agents to a physician, urinary retention due to the use of OTC decongestants, antihistamines, or hypnotics should be ruled out. In older women, α-adrenergic antago- nists (many antihypertensives) may induce stress incontinence by blocking receptors at the bladder neck (7). Before considering other interventions in these situations, one should substitute an alternative agent and reevaluate.

Calcium channel blockers may cause relaxation of the smooth muscle tissue in the detrusor. This leads to an increase in residual volume and occasionally even provokes overﬂ ow incontinence, particularly in obstructed men with coexisting detrusor weakness. The dihydropyridine class of these agents (e.g., nifedipine, nicardipine, isradipine, nimodipine) also can cause peripheral edema, which may exacerbate nocturia and nocturnal incontinence.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) can induce a chronic cough. Because the risk of this side effect increases with age, these agents may exacerbate what otherwise would be minimal stress incontinence in older women.

Excessive Urine Output

Conditions resulting in increased urine output include excessive ﬂ uid

intake, diuretics, metabolic abnormalities (e.g., uncontrolled diabetes

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mellitus, which leads to glucosuria, and multiple myeloma with hypercal- ciuria) and disorders associated with ﬂ uid retention. Excessive output is a likely contributor when incontinence is associated with nocturia.

Restricted Mobility

Immobility can result from numerous treatable conditions including arthri- tis, deconditioning, spinal stenosis, stroke, foot problems, or being restrained in a bed or chair (8).

Stool Impaction

Impaction causes urinary incontinence in two ways: by urethral obstruc- tion leading to overﬂ ow incontinence, and by bladder stimulation that causes “urge” symptoms.

Chronic/Persistent (“Established”) Incontinence

If incontinence persists after transient and functional cause have been addressed, the urinary tract causes of incontinence should be considered.

The lower urinary tract can malfunction in only four ways. Two involve the bladder, and two involve the outlet: The bladder either contracts when it should not (detrusor overactivity) or fails to contract when or as well as it should (detrusor underactivity). Alternatively, outlet resistance is high when it should be low (obstruction), or low when it should be high (outlet incompetence).

Detrusor Overactivity

Detrusor overactivity (DO) is the most common form of urinary inconti- nence in elderly individuals of either sex. Symptoms and characteristics of DO include increased spontaneous activity of detrusor smooth muscle, moderate to large leakage, and nocturnal frequency and incontinence.

Sacral sensation and reﬂ exes are preserved and voluntary control of the anal sphincter is intact. In the elderly there are multiple causes of DO:

dementia, cervical disk disease or spondylosis, Parkinson’s disease, stroke, subclinical urethral obstruction or sphincter incompetence, and age itself.

Postvoid residual urine volume (PVR) is generally low. Residual volume Case (Part 3)

S.K. recently began having difﬁ culty sleeping, so she bought an over-

the-counter sleeping aid. Her sleep improved initially, but she then

complained of a frequent “hangover” sensation. She realized that she

was having more difﬁ culty with her incontinence and ended up using

more diaper pads.

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in excess of 50 mL suggests outlet obstruction, detrusor hyperactivity with impaired contractility (DHIC), pooling of urine in a woman with a cysto- cele, Parkinson’s disease, or spinal cord injury.

Stress Incontinence

Stress incontinence is the second most common cause of incontinence in older women. Causes include the following: (1) Urethral hypermobility due to pelvic muscle laxity: Proximal urethra and bladder neck “herniate”

through the urogenital diaphragm when abdominal pressure increases.

This causes unequal transmission of abdominal pressure to the bladder and urethra. The hallmark of the diagnosis is leakage that, in the absence of bladder distention, occurs coincident with the stress maneuver (e.g., cough, sneezing). (2) Intrinsic sphincter deﬁ ciency or type 3 stress incon- tinence (9,10): Afﬂ icted women usually leak with even trivial stress maneu- vers (e.g., walking) and may note continuous seepage when standing quietly.

It is usually due to operative trauma, but milder forms also occur in older women, resulting only from urethral atrophy superimposed on the age- related decline in urethral pressure. (3) Urethral instability, a rare cause of stress incontinence in older women, in which the sphincter paradoxically relaxes in the absence of apparent detrusor contraction. (4) Sphincter damage following prostatectomy.

Incontinence Secondary to Outlet Obstruction

This is the second most common cause of incontinence in older men, although most obstructed men are not incontinent. If due to neurologic disease, obstruction is invariably associated with a spinal cord lesion. More commonly, obstruction results from prostatic enlargement, prostate carci- noma, or urethral stricture. Such men present with hesitancy, incomplete voiding sensation, postvoid dribbling, urge incontinence, diminished and interrupted fl ow, and a need to strain to void. Because symptoms, ease of catheterization, and palpated prostate size correlate poorly with obstruc- tion— and PVR is insuffi ciently specifi c— obstruction is diffi cult to exclude without further testing.

Anatomic obstruction is rare in women, and is usually due not to stric- ture, but to kinking associated with a large cystocele or to obstruction fol- lowing bladder neck suspension. Rarely, bladder neck obstruction or a bladder calculus is the cause.

Incontinence Secondary to Detrusor Underactivity

Detrusor underactivity, the source of 5% to 10% of incontinence in older

persons, may be caused by mechanical injury to the nerves supplying the

bladder (e.g., disk compression or tumor involvement) or by the autonomic

neuropathy of diabetes, vitamin B

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deﬁ ciency, Parkinson’s disease, alco-

holism, vincristine therapy, or tabes dorsalis. Alternatively, the detrusor

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may be replaced by ﬁ brosis and connective tissue, as occurs in men with chronic outlet obstruction, so that even when the obstruction is removed, the bladder fails to empty normally. Detrusor weakness in women is gener- ally idiopathic; instead of ﬁ brosis, the detrusor displays degeneration of both muscle cells and axons, without accompanying regeneration (11).

A mild degree of bladder weakness occurs commonly in older individu- als. Although insuffi cient to cause incontinence, it can complicate treat- ment of other causes (see Management Considerations, below). However, when severe enough to cause leakage, detrusor underactivity is associated with overfl ow incontinence. Other presenting complaints include many of the same symptoms of outlet obstruction described earlier. Leakage of small amounts occurs frequently throughout the day and night. If the problem is neurologically mediated, perineal sensation, sacral refl exes, and anal sphincter control are frequently impaired.

Functional Incontinence

The causes of chronic geriatric incontinence generally lie within the urinary tract. The exception is functional incontinence, which is attributed to causes outside the urinary tract, such as deﬁ cits of cognition and mobility, environmental demands, and medical factors. The term functional incon- tinence implies that urinary tract function is normal. However, a diagnosis of functional incontinence does not rule out transient, that is, reversible, causes of incontinence, and functionally impaired individuals may beneﬁ t from targeted therapy. These factors are important to keep in mind because small improvements in each may markedly ameliorate both incontinence and functional status.

Diagnostic Evaluation

Symptoms and Signs

Elicit a detailed description of the incontinence, focusing on its onset, fre- quency, severity, pattern, precipitants, palliating features, and the follow- ing associated symptoms and conditions.

Urge

Although the clinical type of incontinence most often associated with

detrusor overactivity (DO) is urge incontinence, urge is neither a sensitive

nor a speciﬁ c symptom. It is absent in 20% of older patients with detrusor

overactivity, and the ﬁ gure is higher in demented patients (12). Urge is also

reported commonly by patients with stress incontinence, outlet obstruc-

tion, and overﬂ ow incontinence.

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Urinary Frequency

Similar to the situation for urgency, other symptoms ascribed to DO also can be misleading unless explored carefully. Urinary frequency (more than seven diurnal voids) is common (13–15), and may be due to voiding habit, preemptive urination to avoid leakage, overﬂ ow incontinence, sensory urgency, a stable but poorly compliant bladder, excessive urine production, depression, anxiety, or social reasons (16). Conversely, incontinent indi- viduals may severely restrict their ﬂ uid intake so that even in the presence of DO they do not void frequently.

Nocturia

It is essential that nocturia be deﬁ ned (e.g., two episodes may be normal for the individual who sleeps 10 hours but not for one who sleeps 4 hours), and then approached systematically. There are three general reasons for nocturia: excessive urine output, sleep-related difﬁ culties, and urinary tract dysfunction. These causes can be differentiated by careful question- ing and examination of a voiding diary that includes voided volumes.

Individuals with intrinsic sphincter deﬁ ciency, especially those who also have a poorly compliant bladder, may report leaking only at night if they allow their bladder to ﬁ ll to a volume greater than their weakened outlet can withstand. Whatever the cause, the nocturnal component of inconti- nence is generally remediable.

Voiding Record

Kept by the patient or caregiver for 48 to 72 hours, the voiding diary records the time of each void and incontinent episode. No attempt is made to alter voiding pattern or ﬂ uid intake. To record voided volumes at home, individuals use a large-mouth container. Information regarding the volume voided provides an index of functional bladder capacity and, together with the pattern of voiding and leakage, can suggest the cause of leakage. [For further details on the void diary, see Chapter 63: Urinary incontinence, In:

Cassel CK, et al., eds, Geriatric Medicine, 4th ed., page 940.]

Physical Examination

A comprehensive physical examination is essential to detect transient causes, comorbid disease, and functional impairment (Table 29.4).

Rectal Examination

One should assess the tone of the rectal sphincter, because the same sacral roots (S2–S4) innervate both the external urethral and the anal sphincters.

The patient should be asked to volitionally contract and relax the anal

sphincter. Because abdominal straining may mimic sphincter contraction,

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place a hand on the patient’s abdomen to check for it. Many neurologically unimpaired elderly patients are unable to volitionally contract their sphinc- ter, but if they can, it is evidence against a cord lesion. When the perineum is relaxed, one can assess motor innervation further by testing the anal wink (S4–S5) and bulbocavernosus reﬂ exes (S2–S4). In an older person, however, the absence of these reﬂ exes is not necessarily pathologic, nor does their presence exclude an underactive detrusor (due to a diabetic neuropathy, for example). Finally, afferent supply is assessed by testing perineal sensation.

Table 29.4. Comprehensive evaluation of the incontinent elderly patient (39) History

Type (urge, reﬂ ex, stress, overﬂ ow, or mixed) Frequency, severity, duration

Pattern (diurnal, nocturnal, or both; also e.g., after taking medications)

Associated symptoms (straining to void, incomplete emptying, dysuria, hematuria, suprapubic/perineal discomfort)

Alteration in bowel habit/sexual function

Other relevant factors (cancer, diabetes, acute illness, neurologic disease, urinary tract infections, and pelvic or lower urinary tract surgery or radiation therapy)

Medications, including nonprescription agents

Functional assessment (mobility, manual dexterity, mentation, motivation) Physical examination

Identify other medical conditions (e.g., orthostatic hypotension, congestive heart failure, peripheral edema)

Test for stress-induced leakage when bladder is full, but not during abrupt urgency Observe/listen to void for force, continuity, straining

Palpate for bladder distention after voiding

Pelvic examination (atrophic vaginitis or urethritis; pelvic muscle laxity; pelvic mass) Rectal examination (skin irritation; resting tone and voluntary control of anal

sphincter; prostate nodules; fecal impaction (Note: ease of catheterization and prostate size correlate poorly with presence or absence of urethral obstruction) Neurologic examination (mental status and affect, mobility, and elemental examination,

including sacral reﬂ exes and perineal sensation) Laboratory investigation

Voiding record (incontinence chart)

*Metabolic survey (measurement of electrolytes, calcium, glucose, and urea nitrogen) Measurement of postvoiding residual volume (PVR) by catheterization or portable

ultrasound Urinalysis and culture

*Renal ultrasound for men whose residual urine exceeds 100–200 mL

*Urine cytology for patients with sterile hematuria, suprapubic/perineal pain, or unexplained new onset or worsening of incontinence

*Uroﬂ owmetry for men in whom urethral obstruction is suspected

*Cystoscopy for patients with hematuria, suspected lower urinary tract pathology (e.g., bladder ﬁ stula, stone, or tumor; urethral diverticulum), or need for surgery; cannot diagnose obstruction

*Urodynamic evaluation when the risk of empiric therapy exceeds the beneﬁ t, when empiric therapy has failed or might be improved by more precise assessment, or when surgery would be clinically appropriate if a correctable condition were found

* Tests indicated only for selected individuals, as described.

Source: Resnick NM, Yalla SV. Management of urinary incontinence in the elderly. N Engl

J Med 1985;313:800–805. Copyright 1985, Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights

reserved.

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Pelvic Muscle Examination

This examination is done for the assessment of pelvic muscle laxity in women that may be caused by a cystocele, rectocele, enterocele, or uterine prolapse. One accomplishes this by removing one blade of the vaginal speculum (or using a “tongue blade”), and sequentially placing the remain- ing blade on the anterior and posterior vaginal walls and asking the patient to cough. If bulging of the anterior wall is detected when the posterior wall is stabilized, a cystocele is present. If bulging of the posterior wall is detected, a rectocele or enterocele is present. Although the extent of pelvic muscle laxity may be underestimated if one checks in only the supine posi- tion, the presence of laxity can usually be determined in any position. It is important to realize, however, that the presence or absence of pelvic muscle laxity reveals little about the cause of an individual’s leakage. Detrusor overactivity may exist in addition to a cystocele, and stress incontinence may exist in the absence of a cystocele.

Stress Testing and Postvoid Residual Measurement

Stress testing is important for incontinent women. Optimally, it is per- formed when the bladder is full and the patient is relaxed (check gluteal folds to corroborate) and in as close to the upright position as possible.

The cough or strain should be vigorous and single, so that one can deter- mine whether leakage coincides with the increase in abdominal pressure or follows it. Stress-related leakage can be missed if any of these conditions is not met.

Immediate/instantaneous leakage is typical of stress incontinence, whereas delayed leakage is associated with stress-induced DO. To be useful diagnostically, leakage must replicate the symptom for which help is sought, because many older women have incidental but not bothersome leakage of a few drops. The test should not be performed if the patient has an abrupt urge to void, because this is usually due to an involuntary detrusor contrac- tion that will lead to a falsely positive stress test. Falsely negative tests occur when the patient fails to cough vigorously or fails to relax the peri- neal muscles, the bladder is not full, or the test is performed in the upright position in a woman with a large cystocele (which kinks the urethra). If performed correctly, the stress test is reasonably sensitive and quite speciﬁ c ( >90%) (17–19).

Following the stress test, the patient is asked to void into a receptacle

and the postvoid residual (PVR) is measured. Optimally, the PVR is mea-

sured within 5 minutes of voiding. Measuring it after an intentional void

is better than after an incontinent episode, because many patients are able

to partially suppress the involuntary contraction during the episode and

more than the true PVR remains. The PVR is also spuriously high if mea-

surement is delayed (especially if the patient’s ﬂ uid intake was high or

included caffeine), the patient was inhibited during voiding, or there is

discomfort due to urethral inﬂ ammation or infection. It is spuriously low

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if the patient augmented voiding by straining (most important in women), if the catheter is withdrawn too quickly, and if the woman has a cystocele that allows urine to “puddle” beneath the catheter’s reach. Of note, relying on the ease of catheterization to establish the presence of obstruction can be misleading, because diffi cult catheter passage may be caused by urethral tortuosity, a “false passage,” or catheter-induced spasm of the distal sphincter, whereas catheter passage may be easy in even obstructed men (20). If the stress test was negative but the history suggests stress incontinence and the combined volume of the void and PVR is <200 mL, the bladder should be fi lled with sterile fl uid so that the stress test can be repeated at an adequate volume. There is no need to repeat a well- performed positive stress test or to repeat it in a woman whose history is negative for stress-related leakage; the sensitivity of the history for stress incontinence— unlike its specifi city— exceeds 90%, making the likelihood of stress incontinence remote in this situation.

Laboratory Findings

One should check the blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, urinalysis, and PVR in all patients. Urine culture should be obtained in those with dysuria or an abnormal urinalysis. Serum sodium, glucose, and calcium should be measured in patients with confusion. If the voiding record sug- gests polyuria, serum glucose and calcium should be determined. Sterile hematuria suggests partially or recently treated bacteriuria, malignancy, calculus, or tuberculosis (21–23).

Urodynamic Studies

Urodynamic studies are useful when diagnostic uncertainty may affect therapy, and when empiric therapy has failed, or other approaches would be tried. They consist of a battery of tests that characterize bladder and urethral function during both the ﬁ lling and voiding phases of the micturi- tion cycle. Optimally, bladder, urethral, and rectal pressures are measured simultaneously and during both phases of the cycle. Concurrent ﬂ uoro- scopic monitoring is extremely helpful for the elderly patient, because pressure monitoring alone may miss involuntary contractions, obstruction, and stress incontinence. Because conditions that closely mimic obstruction and stress incontinence are so common in the elderly, urodynamic cor- roboration of the diagnosis is strongly recommended if surgery will be performed.

Radiographic Evaluation

Optimally, the radiographic and urodynamic evaluations are performed

simultaneously, allowing correlation of visual and manometric informa-

tion. If this is not feasible, substantial information can still be gleaned

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from cystography. Voiding ﬁ lms allow one to check for outlet obstruc- tion. Postvoiding residual volume also can be assessed radiographically.

However, a low volume does not exclude a weak bladder if the patient augmented voiding by straining or by multiple voids before the ﬁ lm was obtained.

Management Considerations

Urge Incontinence

Nonpharmacologic Management

Simple measures include adjusting the timing or amount of ﬂ uid excretion or providing a bedside commode or urinal, and are often successful. Behav- ioral therapy includes bladder training regimens, which will extend the voiding interval (24–27). For cognitively impaired patients, try “prompted voiding.” Asked every 2 hours whether they need to void, patients are escorted to the toilet if the response is afﬁ rmative. Use positive verbal reinforcement; avoid negative comments. A voiding record can be provide helpful information.

Pharmacologic Management

Drugs augment behavioral intervention but do not supplant it, because they generally do not abolish involuntary contractions. Timed toileting or bladder retraining, in conjunction with a bladder relaxant, is thus especially useful for older adults who have little warning before detrusor contraction (28). Table 29.5 provides information on drugs used to treat DO.

Adjunctive Measures

Pads and special undergarments are invaluable if incontinence proves refractory. For bedridden individuals, a launderable bed pad may be pref- erable; for those with a stroke, a diaper or pants that can be opened using the good hand may be preferred. For ambulatory patients with large volumes of incontinence, wood pulp–containing products are usually supe- rior to ones containing polymer gel. Optimal products for men and women differ because of the location of the target zone of the urinary loss. Finally, the choice of product is inﬂ uenced by the presence of fecal incontinence.

A condom catheter can be helpful for men, but it is associated with skin breakdown, bacteriuria, and decreased motivation to become dry (29–32);

it is not feasible for the older man with a small or retracted penis. External

collecting devices have been devised for institutionalized women. Whether

they will adhere adequately in more active women remains to be deter-

mined. Indwelling urethral catheters are not recommended for detrusor

overactivity because they usually exacerbate it.

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Stress Incontinence

Nonpharmacologic Management

Urethral hypermobility may be improved by weight loss if the patient is obese, by postural maneuvers (33), by therapy of precipitating conditions, and (rarely) by insertion of a pessary (34,35). Adjusting ﬂ uid excretion and voiding intervals to keep bladder volume low are also helpful. However, if the incontinence threshold is less than 150 to 200 mL, this strategy is gener- ally not alone sufﬁ cient.

Table 29.5. Bladder relaxant medications used to treat urge incontinence

^a

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Medication class, name, and dosage Comments

Smooth muscle relaxant Has not proved effective in placebo- Flavoxate 300–800 mg daily controlled trials.

(100–200 mg po tid-qid)

^b

Calcium channel blocker No controlled trial data. Most useful Diltiazem 90–270 mg daily for the patient with another indication (30–90 mg po qd-tid) for the drug (e.g., hypertension, angina Nifedipine 30–90 mg daily pectoris, or abnormalities of cardiac (10–30 mg po qd-tid) diastolic relaxation).

Combination smooth muscle relaxant Both oxybutynin and tolterodine have and anticholinergic proven effective in rigorous controlled Oxybutynin IR 7.5–20 mg daily trials when used continuously; less (2.5–5 mg po tid-qid)

^c

controlled data are available for Oxybutynin XL 5–30 mg daily dicyclomine but efﬁ cacy appears to be (given once daily) similar. Because immediate release Tolterodine 2 mg twice daily oxybutynin and dicyclomine have a Dicyclomine 30–90 mg daily rapid onset of action, they can be tried (10–30 mg po tid) prophylactically if incontinence occurs

at predictable times.

Tricyclic antidepressants

^d

May be particularly helpful in women Doxepin 25–75 mg daily with coexistent stress incontinence.

(10–25 mg po qd-tid) Orthostatic hypotension often Imipramine 25–100 mg daily precludes their use, but a tricyclic (10–25 mg po qd-qid) antidepressant may be preferred for a

depressed incontinent patient without orthostatic hypotension.

a

All drugs should be started at the lowest dose and increased slowly until encountering maximum beneﬁ t or intolerable side effects. All are given in divided doses, except the anti- depressants and long-acting forms of oxybutynin and tolterodine, which may be given as a single daily dose.

b

Some uncontrolled reports suggest that doses up to 1200 mg/d may be effective with toler- able side effects; efﬁ cacy has not been supported by randomized controlled trials at any dose.

c

May also be applied intravesically in patients who can use intermittent catheterization.

d

May give as single daily dose of 25–100 mg after determining the optimal dose.

IR, immediate release; XL, extended release.

Source: Reprinted from Resnick NM. Urinary incontinence. Lancet 1995;346:94–99, with

permission from Elsevier.

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Pelvic muscle (Kegel) exercises can decrease incontinence substantially for women. Proven regimens involve 30 to 200 contractions/day for up to 10 seconds at a time. Exercises must be pursued indefi nitely. Effi cacy is limited for severe incontinence because only 10% to 25% of women become fully continent, and many older women are unable or unmotivated to follow such regimens. Adding vaginal cones, biofeedback, or electrical stimulation likely enhances effi cacy but their marginal benefi t is unclear.

Many devices other than pessaries have been developed to contain leakage for women. Most are applied as a “cap” over the urethral meatus. However, application of such devices, especially in older women with atrophic mucosal, can be quite problematic. For men, prostheses such as condom catheters or penile clamps may be useful, but most require substantial cognitive capacity and manual dexterity and are often poorly tolerated.

Penile sheaths (e.g., McGuire prosthesis or adhesive underwear liners) are also an alternative for men. As discussed above, pads and undergarments are used as adjunctive measures. However, in these cases, polymer gel pads are frequently successful because the gel can more readily absorb the smaller amount of leakage. Some products can be ﬂ ushed down the toilet, a convenient feature for ambulatory individuals.

Pharmacologic Management

α-Adrenergic agonists, such as phenylpropanolamine (PPA) or pseudo- ephedrine, may be added and are often benefi cial for women, especially when administered with estrogen. Pseudoephedrine and estrogen may also work for women with sphincter defi ciency. Unfortunately, PPA— the agent for which most data are available— was withdrawn from the American market, owing to reports of a very small risk of stroke. Imipramine, with benefi cial effects on the bladder and the outlet, is a reasonable alternative for patients with evidence of both stress and urge incontinence.

Surgical Intervention

If urethral hypermobility is conﬁ rmed, surgical correction is successful in the majority of selected elderly patients. If sphincter incompetence is diagnosed instead, it can be corrected with a different procedure (pubovaginal sling), but the morbidity is higher and precipitation of chronic retention is more likely than with correction of urethral hyper- mobility. The inﬂ uence of coincident DO on outcome in older women has been inadequately investigated for either type of stress incontinence.

Other treatments for sphincter incompetence include periurethral bulking injections (e.g., bovine collagen) and insertion of an artiﬁ cial sphincter.

Each is effective in selected cases, but reported experience with these

approaches in individuals over age 75 is still limited, and so is long-term

follow-up.

(15)

Outlet Obstruction

Nonpharmacologic Management

In the absence of urinary retention, modiﬁ cation of ﬂ uid excretion and voiding habits may be effective.

Pharmacologic Management

α-Adrenergic antagonists (e.g., terazosin, prazosin) are useful and gener- ally well tolerated, except for men with diastolic dysfunction or signiﬁ cant aortic stenosis, in whom these agents should be used with more caution.

Tamsulosin may be better tolerated than less specifi c α-blocking agents, but defi nitive clinical data are still not available (36). Finasteride, a 5 α- reductase inhibitor, is another alternative, but fewer men appear to benefi t, the effect is more modest, and the benefi t is more delayed (37).

Surgical Intervention

Surgical techniques that now permit resection under local anesthesia have made surgery increasingly feasible for this population. Less extensive resection often sufﬁ ces for frail elderly men, in whom recurrence of symp- toms with adenoma regrowth years later is often not an issue. In women, if a large cystocele is the problem, surgical correction is usually required and should include bladder neck suspension if urethral hypermobility is also present. Bladder neck obstruction is also corrected easily, in even the frailest patient. Distal urethral stenosis can be dilated and treated with estrogen. If meatal stenosis is present, more extensive intervention may be necessary; alternatively, dilation can be repeated at fairly frequent intervals.

Underactive Detrusor

The management of detrusor underactivity is directed at reducing the residual volume, eliminating hydronephrosis (if present), and preventing urosepsis.

The ﬁ rst step is to use indwelling or intermittent catheterization to

decompress the bladder for up to a month (at least 7 to 14 days) while

reversing potential contributors to impaired detrusor function (fecal impac-

tion and medications). If an indwelling catheter has been inserted, it then

should be withdrawn. If decompression does not fully restore bladder func-

tion, augmented voiding techniques such as double voiding and implemen-

tation of the Credé (application of suprapubic pressure during voiding) or

Valsalva maneuver may help if the patient is able to initiate a detrusor

contraction or if there is coexistent stress incontinence, especially in a

woman.

(16)

Pharmacologic Management

Bethanechol (40–200 mg/day in divided doses) is occasionally useful in a patient whose bladder contracts poorly because of treatment with anticho- linergic agents that cannot be discontinued (e.g., tricyclic antidepressant).

Evidence for bethanechol’s efﬁ cacy is equivocal at best, and residual volume should be monitored to assess its effect.

Catheterization

If after decompression the detrusor is acontractile, the interventions described above are apt to be fruitless, and the patient should be started on intermittent or indwelling catheterization.

Intermittent Catheterization

A condom catheter is contraindicated in the setting of retention. For indi- viduals at home, intermittent self-catheterization is preferable and requires only clean, rather than sterile, catheter insertion. Catheters are cleaned daily, allowed to air dry at night, sterilized periodically, and may be reused repeatedly. Antibiotic or methenamine prophylaxis against urinary tract infection is probably warranted if the individual gets more than an occasional symptomatic infection or has an abnormal heart valve. Inter- mittent catheterization in this setting is generally painless, safe, inexpen- sive, and effective, and allows individuals to carry on with their usual daily activities. If used in an institutional setting, sterile rather than clean technique should be employed until studies document the safety of the latter.

Indwelling Catheterization

Unfortunately, despite the beneﬁ ts and proven feasibility of intermittent catheterization, most elderly individuals choose indwelling catheterization instead. Complications of chronic indwelling catheterization include renal inﬂ ammation and chronic pyelonephritis, bladder and urethral erosions, bladder stones and cancer, as well as urosepsis. When indicated, indwelling catheters can be extremely effective, but their use should be restricted.

They are indicated in the acutely ill patient to monitor ﬂ uid balance, in the patient with a nonhealing pressure ulcer, for temporary bladder decom- pression in patients with acute urinary retention, and in the patient with overﬂ ow incontinence refractory to other measures. Even in long-term care facilities, they are probably indicated for only 1% to 2% of patients.

However, patient preference and values are also important. Thus, an

indwelling catheter may also be justiﬁ ed for a cognitively intact patient who

is willing to accept the risk in return for the security and convenience the

catheter can provide.

(17)

Fantl JA, Newman DK, Colling J. Urinary Incontinence in Adults: Acute and Chronic Management. Clinical Practice Guideline, No. 2, 1996 Update, AHCPR Pub. No. 96–0682. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, March 1996. A comprehensive review of the care of the older adult with urinary incontinence.

Resnick NM. Urinary incontinence. In: Cassel CK, Leipzig RM, Cohen HJ, et al., eds. Geriatric Medicine, 4th ed. New York: Springer, 2003:931–956.

Timmons MC. Gynecologic and urologic problems of older women. In: Cassel CK, Leipzig RM, Cohen HJ, et al., eds. Geriatric Medicine, 4th ed. New York:

Springer, 2003:737–754.

References

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General Principles

• Although both providers and older patients often neglect inconti- nence or dismiss it as a normal part of growing older, it is abnormal at any age.

• Incontinence in an older person is often due to reversible conditions (factors) outside the lower urinary tract. Treatment of these precipi- tating factors alone may be enough to restore continence.

• The seven acute/transient causes of urinary incontinence can be recalled by using the mnemonic DIAPERS: delirium, infection, atro- phic urethritis/vaginitis, pharmaceuticals, excessive urine output, restricted mobility, stool impaction.

• There are four basic causes of chronic/persistent urinary inconti-

nence; two involve the bladder, and two involve the outlet. The bladder

either contracts when it should not (detrusor overactivity) or fails to

contract when or as well as it should (detrusor underactivity). Alter-

natively, outlet resistance is high when it should be low (obstruction),

or low when it should be high (outlet incompetence).

(18)

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