Hydrogeology of the Nurra Region, Sardinia (Italy): basement-cover in fluences on groundwater occurrence and hydrogeochemistry
Giorgio Ghiglieri&Giacomo Oggiano&
Maria Dolores Fidelibus&Tamiru Alemayehu&
Giulio Barbieri&Antonio Vernier
Abstract The Nurra district in the Island of Sardinia (Italy) has a Palaeozoic basement and covers, consisting of Mesozoic carbonates, Cenozoic pyroclastic rocks and Quaternary, mainly clastic, sediments. The faulting and folding affecting the covers predominantly control the geomorphology. The morphology of the southern part is controlled by the Tertiary volcanic activity that generated a stack of pyroclastic flows. Geological structures and lithology exert the main control on recharge and ground- water circulation, as well as its availability and quality.
The watershed divides do not fit the groundwater divide;
the latter is conditioned by open folds and by faults. The Mesozoic folded carbonate sequences contain appreciable amounts of groundwater, particularly where structural
lows are generated by synclines and normal faults. The regional groundwaterflow has been defined. The investi- gated groundwater shows relatively high TDS and chloride concentrations which, along with other hydro- geochemical evidence, rules out sea-water intrusion as the cause of high salinity. The high chloride and sulphate concentrations can be related to deep hydrothermal circuits and to Triassic evaporites, respectively. The source water chemistry has been modified by various geochemical processes due to the groundwater–rock interaction, including ion exchange with hydrothermal minerals and clays, incongruent solution of dolomite, and sulphate reduction.
Keywords Groundwaterflow . Hydrogeochemistry . Salinization . Groundwater management . Italy
Introduction
The Nurra district is located in the northwestern part of the island of Sardinia (Italy) in the Sassari Province, with 80 km of coastline with the Mediterranean Sea (Fig. 1a).
Its geology records a long history from Paleozoic to Quaternary, resulting in relative structural complexity and in a wide variety of rocks.
Due to intensive human activities and recent climatic changes, the area has become vulnerable to desertification.
As a result, the area is included in the national research network under the RIADE project (Integrated research for applying new technologies and processes for combating desertification (RIADE project2002–2006), set up by the Italian Ministry of Research (Ghiglieri et al.2006).
The water demand in the study area is considerable, water being required for industry, domestic use, tourism, agriculture, and animal rearing. Nurra relies on both surface and groundwaters. The seasonal and perennial rivers of the area are exploited using the Cuga and Surigheddu dams, built on the highlands. However, like on other Mediterranean islands, surface-water resources can periodically suffer from drastic shortage. Groundwater in different aquifers is exploited using deep boreholes which can attain discharges as high as 145 l/s. The water demand of the city of Alghero, for example, is partially Received: 31 March 2006 / Accepted: 15 September 2008
©Springer-Verlag 2008
G. Ghiglieri ())
Department of Territorial Engineering, Geopedology and Applied Geology Section,
Desertification Research Group (NRD), University of Sassari, Viale Italia, 07100, Sassari, Italy
e-mail: [email protected] Fax: +39-79-229261 G. Oggiano
Institute of Geological Sciences and Mineralogy, University of Sassari,
Corso Angioy 10, 07100, Sassari, Italy M. D. Fidelibus
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Bari,
Via Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy T. Alemayehu
School of Geosciences, Wits University,
Private bag 3, P. O. Box Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa G. Barbieri:A. Vernier
Department of Territorial Engineering,
Applied Geology and Applied Geophysics Section, University of Cagliari,
Piazza D’Armi, 09100, Cagliari, Italy
satisfied by groundwater withdrawn through five wells discharging a total of 96 l/s.
Notwithstanding the importance of local groundwater as the main source of good quality water and its role of strategic reserve in such semiarid conditions, exploitation up to now has been uncontrolled (Barbieri et al.2005a,b;
Ghiglieri et al.2006). An additional problem in the Nurra district is that water users have a very scant knowledge of the provenance and value of the fresh water they exploit, thus leading to a high rate of unofficial exploitation.
The extensive exploitation of the Nurra aquifers and the consequent water-quality deterioration require a revision of current water management practices. This revision has to be based on good knowledge of both the potential of aquifers in terms of geometry and storage and quality in terms of hydrogeochemical features, which, up to now, has been disregarded. This report presents the synthesis of lengthy research, of which the main aims of have been: (1) to reconstruct the hydrogeological setting and the regional groundwaterflow; (2) to ascertain the origin of salinity; (3) to recognise the boundary conditions of different hydro- geologic units by mean of processes that control the concentration of major constituents in the different aquifers.
Achieving these aims will establish a basis for developing an appropriate monitoring programme and therefore improved management of the water resources of the region (Ghiglieri et al.2006,2007,2008).
Methodology
A geological and structural map of the area has been prepared on the basis of recent data andfield surveys. The conceptualization of the hydrogeological setting led to the identification of the recharge and discharge areas and major controlling structures. The field data have been integrated with aerial photo interpretation and geophysical prospecting (gravimetric profiles) (Ghiglieri et al. 2006).
For the purposes of the RIADE project, technical data and relevant information from 424 boreholes were collected together with data from 87 springs. A global positioning system (GPS) was used to locate each feature (Ghiglieri et al. 2006).
From these locations, 99 wells and 21 springs were selected for chemical monitoring purposes. In order to investigate the behaviour of the aquifers at two different times of the year, water was sampled for chemical analysis from 118 water points (97 wells and 21 springs) in December 2004, and from 55 water points (51 wells and 4 springs) in June 2005 (Fig. 1c).
Water samples were collected from pumped wells and directly from springs in 1,000-ml polyethylene bottles.
Electrical conductivity, pH, alkalinity and temperature were measured in thefield while Eh was determined in the
laboratory. The chemical analyses were performed at the University of Sassari (Italy), immediately after sample collection. The analysis of cations was undertaken using an Analyst 200 atomic absorption spectrometer. Anions were analyzed by an ion chromatograph with four components: a Waters pump (model 590), a Waters electrical conductivity detector (model 431), an Alltech solid phase chemical suppressor (SPCS, model 335) and a SRI PeakSimple data system (model 203).
For stable oxygen and hydrogen isotopes, seven groundwater samples were collected from one spring and six boreholes. For tritium analysis only three waters representative of the three main hydrogeologic units were sampled. The analysis was carried out in the CNR isotope hydrology laboratory, Pisa, Italy.
Geological setting
The Nurra district encompasses a structural high, which developed during the Tertiary and where older rock sequences are progressively exposed westward (Fig. 1b).
The northeastern limit of the area is marked by the upper Miocene deposits of a half-graben Porto Torres basin (Thomas and Gennessaux1986; Funedda et al.2000) that cover the older rocks. The Variscan metamorphic basement is well exposed in the westernmost sector near the coast (Fig.1b). As regards the basement, grey Autunian arenites and silts, and upper Permian and Triassic continental red beds with interlayered alkaline volcanics occur. The first marine transgressive deposits consist of dolostones, lime- stones and evaporites of Middle Triassic age showing the typical Germanic facies.
Since this time, shallow marine sedimentation, in a carbonate platform environment, had been almost contin- uous until Aptian-Albian time. During the Albian-Aptian time, an important tectonic phase took place in Nurra, referred to as the Bedoulian movement (Oggiano et al.
1987). This tectonic event was responsible for the emersion that gave rise to widespread bauxite deposits and caused the partial erosion of the Jurassic succession.
During the Coniacian stage, all the Nurra bauxitic palaeosurface was submerged, due to a new transgression, which led to carbonate-terrigenous sedimentation lasting up to the Maastrichtian. The post-Maastrichtian emersion is supposedly related to a new tectonic phase (Laramic phase;
Oggiano et al. 1987). Since the Paleocene, the entire region experienced weathering, erosion, widespread cal- calkaline volcanism and two important deformation events linked both to the Pirenaic and to the North Apennine (Carmignani et al. 1995) orogenesis. These deformations generated minor thrusts and mild NE trending folds which dominate the present geometry of the Mesozoic cover and, as a consequence, the geometry of the main aquifers.
The Variscan basement outcrops in the westernmost part of the study area, consisting chiefly of black phyllites with minor quartzites, meta-basalts and oolitic ironstones. To- wards the north, due to the increased metamorphic grade, it consists of micaschists and paragneisses, while the phyllites
Fig. 1 The Nurra district of Sardinia: a location map; b geological map; c location of water sampling points in the Calich catchment (delineated in b). In the legend gw stands for groundwater
inhibit vertical infiltration in this area. The only rock with very low secondary permeability (1×10−7 m/s) is the quartzite which is jointed due to its brittle nature.
The Mesozoic succession overlies the basement (Fig. 2). The lowest unit is an arenite-conglomerate deposit, Permo-Triassic in age, which shows highly variable thickness and medium permeability. The remaining part of the Triassic rocks consists of transgressive dolomitic, calcareous and evaporitic deposits. The thickness of the carbonate portion is about 80 m, whereas the stratigraphic thickness of the evaporitic deposits, mainly gypsum, is not known; due to their ductile behaviour, these deposits are severely deformed. The permeability of the Triassic carbonate and gypsum is high (Fig. 3) and the deposit plays an important role in conditioning the groundwater salinity.
A carbonate sequence that encompasses the entire Jurassic system lies on the Triassic evaporites. Its base consists of alternations of marls and limestones with thin dark pyrite-rich shale levels. Most of the sequence is made of dolostones and limestones; green marls with typical Purbeckian facies also occur towards the top of this system grading into the Cretaceous limestone. The Jurassic deposits tend to increase their thickness to the southeast and attain maximum thickness of 800 m to the south, close to the Su Zumbaru Fault (central part of the study area, Figs.1–3). The permeability and the transmissivity of the Jurassic sequence are high due to fractures and karstic conduits.
The Cretaceous succession lies on“Purbeckian” marls;
it consists of two sequences separated by an angular unconformity, which is marked by bauxite deposits and represents a hiatus corresponding to the mid-Cretaceous.
The lower sequence is represented by limestone with
typical Urgonian facies. This limestone consists of a strongly karstified biosparite that, where not completely eroded, reaches 180 m in thickness (Figs.1b and2).
The upper Cretaceous sequence also consists of lime- stones with an important intercalation of glauconite-bearing, more or less arenitic marls. Some boreholes penetrate 300 m of upper Cretaceous deposits in the area south of Olmedo (Oggiano et al.1987).
Above a karstic palaeosurface, developed on the Mesozoic carbonate rocks, several pyroclasticflows were deposited during the lower Miocene. The pyroclastic deposits formed the volcanic plateau in the southeastern part of the area. The differentflow units are separated by palaeosols; the thickness of eachflow varies from a few to hundreds of metres. Bentonite deposits deriving from the hydrothermal alteration of feldspar and glassy material generally seal the bottom of the pyroclastic stack. The welded tuffs that occur as a top cover are intensively fractured favouring vertical infiltration.
The pyroclastic flows (Figs.1b and 2) are capped by Burdigalian calcarenites that outcrop only at the eastern boundary of the study area along with sands and conglomerates of Tortonian age derived from a reworking of the basement. The latter clastic deposits are confined within structural lows interpreted as strike slip basins.
Quaternary aeolian sands, travertines and loose sedi- ments consisting of alluvial sands and gravels cover most of the plains in the west of the region, occurring as pediment slope deposits and valleyfill materials that range in thickness from 10 to 40 m. All these deposits have
Fig. 2 Representative geological cross sections
Fig. 3 Hydrogeological map. K hydraulic conductivity
generally good permeability, allowing infiltration into the lower aquifers.
Structural framework
The basement tectonics reflect the polyphase evolution of the Variscan events in Sardinia. The only hydrogeologi- cally relevant structure of this unit is linked to the latest Variscan folding phase that generated a wide synform with an east striking and dipping axis. This structure controls the superficial drainage, which is roughly directed eastwards, i.e. toward the Mesozoic limestones. The first tectonic instability affecting the Mesozoic cover started in the Middle-Cretaceous time with transtensive Bedoulian movements followed by a transpressive regime (Oggiano et al.1987); these caused the angular unconformity between the Lower Aptian and the Coniacian (Oggiano et al.1987), an interval which lead to the development of the bauxite mentioned above. These tectonic movements resulted in the development of some uplifted blocks bounded by normal faults and mild folding within a sinistral wrench shear belt running between the Olmedo area and Porto Conte bay (Fig. 2). Hence, during the peneplanation of the bauxitic surface, due to the erosive removal of at least 600 m of Mesozoic sequence towards the north, the actual thickness of the Mesozoic cover increases to the south.
The evidence for tectonic movements subsequent to the development of the bauxite horizon and its Coniacian cover comprise syn-tectonic breccias and olistostromes within Upper Cretaceous sediments close to an important fault. These tectonic movements caused the uplift of the Mesozoic platform south of a line joining Uri and Alghero (Mamuntanas-Su Zumbaru Fault, Oggiano et al. 1987).
This tectonic activity was tentatively ascribed to the Laramic phase. Other faults and folds, with NE axial strike, involving the whole Mesozoic sequence except the deposits younger than Lower Miocene; can be referred to the Eocene Pyrenaic phase and the Oligocene Apenninic collision. During the Oligocene and early Miocene, new left lateral movements caused the reactivation of the ENE oriented, strike-slip fault (Carmignani et al.1995) of mid- Cretaceous age. From the Burdigalian, at the same time as the opening of the Balearic basin, until the Pliocene, an extensional regime was present, giving rise to normal faults with various orientations.
Hydrogeological features
The thickness of the Mesozoic sequences is known only approximately because of the uncertainties associated with the deep erosion during the Middle Cretaceous and other erosion events, which occurred since the begin- ning of the Cenozoic. However, in the main structural lows, the Mesozoic aquifer can easily reach thicknesses of 1,000 m (Ghiglieri et al. 2006, 2007). The deforma- tion history of the Mesozoic rocks exerted a strong
control on the following features of the geometry of the aquifers:
– The Mid-Cretaceous erosive stage controls the thickness of the Mesozoic carbonate rocks. In general, the thickness increases southwards and progressively diminishes north- ward in consequence of the presence of a palaeo-structural high. The Mesozoic sequences, due to their huge thickness, represent the main aquifer of the region, which is shallower and thinner moving northward (Figs.2and3).
– Locally synformal geometries, due to Upper Creta- ceous deformation involving marly strata, can allow the formation of perched aquifers; moreover, the shortening, accommodated by folds, causes the thick- ening of the cover and, consequently, of the aquifers.
The volcanic succession thickens southward, where it also crops out at high topographic levels (500 m a.s.l.). This unit hosts a multilayer aquifer due to alternance of weakly welded, ignimbrites and deeply fractured high-grade ignim- brite. Each permeable layer is confined by clay-rich paleosols or by pumice and ashflows converted into bentonite.
The strike-slip faults, due to their steep dip and deep penetration, allowed discharge of hypothermal fluid that resulted in the development of bentonite and zeolites deposits in the volcanic rocks. Because of their high cation exchange capacities (CEC), these minerals exert a control on water chemistry. Hydrothermal alteration, which oc- curred in Upper Miocene, is a widespread phenomena in the study area and in the neighbouring localities. In the study area, in particular, epigenetic kaolin and bentonite are present (Mameli 2000). Zeolites with high CEC are described by Cerri et al. (2001) and Cerri and Mameli (2004). Bentonite occurs mostly in the calcium form, while zeolite occurs in calcium-, sodium- and potassium- rich varieties (Cerri et al.2001). With regards to chloride, concentrations up to 20,000 ppm have been detected in some deeply kaolinized volcanic rocks (Mameli2001).
In the southeastern and southern part of the area there are hypothermal manifestations in the form of thermal springs associated with deep running strike-slip faults. The field data also indicate that groundwaters in the volcanic rocks have high temperatures that range between 19 and 24°C, including the cold winter season. In order to identify the recharge area, the groundwater divide has been recognized (Fig. 3), allowing the mean annual recharge to be estimated (about 37×106m3, Ghiglieri et al.2006,2008).
Growndwater regional flow
The mean annual rainfall in the Nurra district, calculated over 30 years (1960–1990), averages 607 mm with a bimodal pattern within a year, which is typical of the Mediterranean region. The mean annual temperature of the area is 15.7°C. The recharge to the aquifers is also expected to take place during the rainy months of October to December and February to April after soil moisture replenishment. The main aquifer is represented by the
Mesozoic carbonate successions with a yield that varies between 20 and 145 l/s. The groundwaterflow direction in this aquifer is strictly controlled by structural deformation and weathering processes (Ghiglieri et al. 2006, 2008).
Due to prevalent NE–SW aligned synclines and anticlines, the direction of groundwaterflow in the carbonate rocks is towards the SW. Anticlinal folds of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks gave rise to high rising ground in the western sector of the area; they play a very important role in recharging or dispersing surface water flows and by reducing water-rock contact time, thus generating relatively fresh water (see the following). The structural highs of Monte Doglia, Monte Pedrosu, Monte Zirra, Monte Timidone and Monte Cugiareddu act as recharge areas for the confined Jurassic aquifer; the culminations of the major anticlines also represent effective recharge areas. On the other hand, the synclines act as storage areas for groundwater. The most prominent synclines are those of Campu Calvagiu and Sabadiga- Alghero (Figs. 2 and 3). In the huge Sabadiga-Alghero syncline, groundwater converges from all directions and wells are high-yielding. Therefore, this synclinal zone contains huge reserves of groundwater. Folded anticlines force groundwater flow through the synclinal axis and influence the direction of groundwater flow, as confirmed by numerical modelling in similar geometries occurring in Israel (Ben-Itzhak and Gvirtzman 2005). The structural frame also controls the boundary conditions: to the west the aquifers are encircled by the contact with very low permeability Variscan basement, which is also the imper- meable lower boundary; to the east the Mesozoic aquifer is buried below the Miocene-hosted aquifers that feed it laterally. To the south the main aquifers are in contact with the volcanic complex through important strike-slip faults.
The productivity of the volcanic deposit is very low due to intensive weathering. The groundwater flow direction in the volcanic massifs is towards the NW, due to the dipping of the Pyroclastic units.
Insights from analytical results
Data reported in Table 1 relate to the superficial, spring and groundwaters sampled in the Nurra district, sampled in the period September–December 2004.
Total dissolved solids (TDS)
The principal feature emerging from the whole data set is that a widespread salinization affects most of the analyzed groundwaters. Since many different salt sources, besides present-day sea water, can be involved in salinization processes (salt spray, evaporite dissolution, mixing with saline fluids and thermal fluids inflows) of coastal aquifers, the identification of the sources can be difficult.
Tellam (1995) considered a number of potential salt sources and salinization processes in a Triassic sandstone aquifer (Cheshire Basin, NE England, UK) such as sea
water concentrated by permafrost salt exclusion, reverse osmosis, leakage of brines known to be present in a Carboniferous deltaic coal-containing sequence underly- ing the sandstones, evaporite dissolution from an overly- ing Triassic mudstone/evaporite sequence, present day sea-water intrusion. Whatever the salt source, its involve- ment is normally partly obscured by water–rock interac- tion processes triggered by ionic strength increase. As an example, groundwater salinization in carbonate aquifers causes a renewal of karstification, with an enhancement of secondary porosity (Hanshaw and Back 1979; Herman and Back1984; Tulipano et al.2005; Whitaker and Smart 1997; Sanford and Konikow 1989a, b; Liu and Chen 1996). In intergranular-flow aquifers, as well as in fractured or karstic aquifers with a few percent of clays or other exchangers, salinization activates ion-exchange (Appelo and Geirnaert1983).
The geological history of the Nurra Basin makes it likely that among the several sources of salinity, sea water, evaporites (mainly NaCl and CaSO4), and Tertiary hydrothermal deposits (derived from hydrothermal fluids with dissolved salts as KCl, CaCl2, NaCl, alunite) are the more reliable. Figure 4 shows the relationship between TDS and chloride concentration. The TDS-Cl plot and all the following plots distinguish all analyzed waters according to their type—surface-, spring- or groundwater—and, in the case of groundwaters, their aquifer. Data from drillings,field surveys and the geological and structural studies, allowed initial attribution of the groundwater and spring samples to the different aquifers; the hydrochemical study subsequently confirmed this attribution for the 95% of samples.
Moreover, no distinction is made as to the periods of sampling. The June 2005 sampling covered only 51% of the wells and 20% of the springs sampled in December 2004, with the addition of other well points: the mean variation of TDS in repeated samples was only 10%, indicating that mineralization does not vary much with season. Therefore, both data-sets are taken into account, with the main aim of describing the general characteristics of the different aquifers.
Figure4shows that TDS ranges from minimum values of about 200 mg/l (springs from Oligo-Miocene volcanic complex) to maximum values of 5,000 mg/l (groundwaters from Triassic aquifer). Most of the springs, a large part of the Jurassic groundwaters and part of the Oligo-Miocene groundwaters show a TDS in the range 500–1,000 mg/l, while almost all Quaternary and Triassic groundwaters show TDS higher than 1,000 mg/l. Cretaceous ground- waters cover the TDS range from 400 to 2,000 mg/l. The value of about 4 meq/l has been chosen as an upper limit for freshwater. The maximum TDS of waters having less than 4 meq/l of chlorides is about 1,000 mg/l.
The TDS-Cl binary plot shows the lines representing the chemically inert mixing between present-day sea water (represented by the mean of four samples of sea water collected offshore from the local coastal area) and, respectively, the freshest waters (springs) sampled in the highland (corresponding to the Oligo-Miocene volcanic aquifer) and in the plain (where all the other aquifers
Table1HydrochemicalparametersforthegroundwaterssampledinDecember2004 IDUTMEUTMNHUTDSTpHECCaMgNaKHCO3ClSO4DICNO3SiO2Δca+ΔMgΔNa+ΔKΔSO4SI calciteSI dolomiteSI gypsumPCO2 10C4430974493714Q1,53919.26.72,3808.682.8015.660.137.3413.793.5010.2615428.23.074.251.77−0.1−0.7−1.37.24E-02 15C4418334494014Q2,45317.56.54,1909.489.0528.710.528.4833.376.2610.134930.55.231.352.300.00.0−1.13.98E-02 20C4430074494522Q1,23018.86.81,6607.882.637.830.197.598.332.6110.069226.43.481.041.510.0−0.5−1.46.17E-02 21C4434284495249Q1,58817.86.92,8304.895.1020.440.388.0216.165.759.66031.40.997.313.75−0.1−0.1−1.33.89E-02 28C4427544494779Q1,14019.56.61,5408.282.306.180.157.237.772.1910.946722.33.69−0.191.15−0.2−0.9−1.49.33E-02 32C4431274496292Q1,34617.87.11,6907.683.799.130.155.616.654.776.5327822.84.853.713.860.0−0.1−1.22.19E-02 4C4419864493156Q2,04019.07.22,98015.225.4314.350.295.4622.113.066.1030946.910.16−3.830.390.00.0−1.21.62E-02 112C4502014491921OM99719.06.21,9002.002.7214.140.462.2015.871.543.66593.3−4.221.33−0.42−1.4−2.7−2.13.63E-02 145C4487704497340OM2,71619.76.95,1404.2410.3735.671.769.7835.884.4012.1123562.40.687.460.16−0.20.0−1.65.89E-02 152C4504514486999OM60018.56.59,911.303.056.090.201.478.190.796.531171.0−2.67−0.57−0.30−2.4−4.4−2.51.23E-01 157S4511994497403OM1,45519.06.02,3106.296.7511.140.158.5613.172.1311.296253.34.780.270.48−0.1−0.1−1.66.76E-02 165S4548404495053OM1,98518.76.84,0806.747.4127.400.612.7335.632.983.266448.70.28−1.75−1.23−0.4−0.8−1.51.32E-02 167S4527774494629OM1,91322.47.03,7805.349.0523.490.513.2934.812.574.261160.50.73−5.08−1.55−0.6−0.8−1.72.63E-02 173S4615994492299OM82220.26.81,3222.991.158.870.306.536.011.198.25035.5−2.324.130.35−0.3−1.0−2.04.47E-02 174S4624934493828OM71318.87.61,0851.901.157.310.335.124.990.786.23288.3−3.163.450.06−0.5−1.2−2.32.75E-02 178S4582274492364OM1,98017.77.14,4207.1411.5225.660.410.3035.934.030.539947.84.72−3.95−0.22−2.0−3.7−1.45.62E-03 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