Criminalisation of femicide/feminicide in Latin American countries

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1

For example, in the United States, Diana Russell, Jane Caputi and Jill Radford, and in Latin America, Marcela Lagarde, Julia Monárrez and Rita Segato, among others.

2_{In Europe, it has been used by feminist activists mainly in}

Italy and Spain, and in France and the United Kingdom more recently. The CEDAW Committee has been using the expression femicide/feminicide in the last years, and it has included this expression in its Draft update of General Recommendation No. 19 on gender based Violence against

women, available at:

http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Doc uments/1_Global/CEDAW_C_GC_19_Add-1_8070_E.pdf The UN General Assembly focused specifically on gender-based killings of women with the adoption of the resolution Taking action against Gender-Related Killing of Women and Girls on 18 December 2013.

3

Costa Rica (2007), Guatemala (2008), Colombia (2008), Chile (2010), El Salvador (2010), Nicaragua (2011), Peru (2011), Argentina (2012), Mexico (2012), Panama (2013), Bolivia (2013), Ecuador (2014), Venezuela (2014) and Brazil (2015).

4

"Gender" has been defined as "the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women” (Article 3 c) of the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence or Istanbul Agreement (2011).

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5

Carcedo A. (Coord.), No olvidamos ni aceptamos: Femicidio en Centroamérica 2000-2006, CEFEMINA Feminist Centre for Information and Action, San José, Costa Rica, 2010; Toledo P., “The drug-war femicides / Femicidios de la guerra contra las drogas”, The Project Syndicate, 9

August 2011, available at:

http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/the-drug-war-femicides

6

Monárrez J., Trama de una injusticia. Feminicidio sexual sistémico en Ciudad Juárez, El Colegio de la Frontera Norte School, Miguel Ángel Porrúa Mexico City, 2009; Morales H., “Femicide and Sexual Violence in Guatemala”, in Bejarano C., Fregoso R-L. (Eds), Terrorizing Women. Feminicide in the Americas, Duke University Press, Durham and London, 2010, pp. 127–137.

7

Toledo P., "Movimiento de mujeres, derechos humanos y tipificación del femicidio / feminicidio en Latinoamérica", in Femenías M.L. (compiladora), Violencias cruzadas. Miradas y perspectivas, Col. Los Ríos Subterráneos, IV, Prohistoria Ediciones, Rosario, 2015.

8

Toledo P., Femicidio / feminicidio, Ediciones Didot, Buenos Aires, 2014.

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9_{Although in some cases they have opposed inadequate or}

too restrictive laws, as in the case of some Mexican states (Toledo P., op. cit., 2014).

10

Russell D., Caputi J., “‘Femicide’: Speaking the unspeakable”, Ms. Magazine, September-October 1990, p. 34.

11_{Although Diana Russell had first used the word femicide in}

1976, its use in Latin America was a consequence of Russell and Caputi’s article in 1990. The use of the expression feminicide has been generalised in Mexico and in most of the region since the mid-1990s, mainly since the reporting of many cases of disappearances and bloody murders of women in the State of Chihuahua, especially in Ciudad Juárez, characterised by extreme sexual or physical violence as well their associated impunity.

12

For example, Julia Monárrez (Monárrez J., Trama de una injusticia. Feminicidio sexual sistémico en Ciudad Juárez, El Colegio de la Frontera Norte School, Miguel Ángel Porrúa

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Mexico City, 2009) has argued that the correct translation of femicide into Spanish, should be feminicide, as it uses the whole Latin root ‘femina’.

13

Lagarde M., “El feminicidio, delito contra la humanidad”, in: CEFRM, Feminicidio, justicia y derecho, Chamber of Deputies of the Hon. Congress of the Union - 59th Legislature Mexico, 2005, pp. 151–164.

14

Inter-American Court of Human Rights, González Banda et al (“Cotton Field”) vs. Mexico, 16 November 2009.

15

Carcedo A. (Coord.), No olvidamos ni aceptamos: Femicidio en Centroamérica 2000-2006, CEFEMINA

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Feminist Centre for Information and Action, San José, Costa Rica, 2010.

16

The only exception is a provision in the Mexican Federal Criminal Code, that punishes negligence in investigation by public officers and prosecutors; but because of its federal character, has a very restricted scope.

17_{For example: Crawford M., Gartner R., Women killing:}

Intimate femicide in Ontario, 1974-1990, Women We Honour Action Committee, Toronto–Ontario, 1992; Campbell J., Runyan C., "Femicide: Guest Editors Introduction", Homicide Studies, Vol. 2, n. 4, 1998, pp. 347-352; Carcedo A., Sagot M., Femicidio en Costa Rica. 1990-1999, Pan American Health Organisation - Women, Health and Development Programme, San José, Costa Rica, 2000; Russell D., Harmes R. (Eds.), Feminicide: una perspectiva global, Mexico, National Autonomous University of Mexico, 2006; Lagarde M., “El feminicidio, delito contra la humanidad”, in: CEFRM, Feminicidio, justicia y derecho, Chamber of Deputies of the Hon. Congress of the Union - 59th Legislature Mexico, 2005, pp. 151–164; Russell D., Radford J. (Eds.), Feminicidio. La política del asesinato de las mujeres, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico, 2006; Carcedo A. (Coord.), No olvidamos ni aceptamos: Femicidio en Centroamérica 2000-2006, CEFEMINA Feminist Centre for Information and Action, San José, Costa Rica, 2010; Cano J.E., Yacobino M.L., “Historias de ‘amor’, machismo y muerte”, in La Plata, FAHCE-UNLP, 25-27 de septiembre 2013, available at:

http://jornadascinig.fahce.unlp.edu.ar/iii-2013/actas-2013/Cano.pdf; Santana P., Astudillo L., Violencia extrema hacia las mujeres en Chile (2010-2012), Andros Impresores, Santiago, 2014.

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18

For example, Russell (Russell D., “AIDS as Mass Femicide: Focus on South Africa”, in Off Our Backs, Vol. 31, No. 1 January 2001, pp. 6-9) in relation to HIV/AIDS in South Africa.

19

For Russell and Caputi (1990) “Femicide is the ultimate end of a continuum of terror that includes rape, torture, sexual slavery (particularly in prostitution), incestuous and extrafamilial child sexual abuse, physical and emotional battery, sexual harassment, genital mutilations (clitoridectomies, infibulations); unnecessary gynaecological

operations (gratuitous hysterectomies), forced

heterosexuality, forced sterilisation, forced motherhood (criminalising contraception and abortion), psychosurgery, […] denial of protein to women in some cultures, cosmetic surgery and other mutilations in the name of beautification. Whenever these forms of terrorism result in death, they become femicides” (Russell D., Caputi J., “‘Femicide’: Speaking the unspeakable”, Ms. Magazine, September-October 1990, p. 35. Own highlighting).

20

Other definitions are even broader, such as those presented by academics who consider that the word "homicide" excludes women, so the word "feminicide" should always be used when referring to a woman being killed.

21

Lagarde M., “Antropología, feminismo y política: Violencia feminicida y derechos humanos de las mujeres”, in: Bullen, Margaret and Diez, Carmen (Coords.), Retos teóricos y nuevas prácticas, Ankulegi Antropologia Elkartea, Spain, 2008, pp. 209–239.

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Crawford M., Gartner R., Women killing: Intimate femicide in Ontario, 1974-1990, Women We Honour Action Committee, Toronto–Ontario, 1992; Stout K., “Feminicidio íntimo: un panorama demográfico nacional”, in Russell D., Harmes R. (Eds.), Feminicidio: una perspectiva global, Mexico, National Autonomous University of Mexico, 2006, pp. 119–133.

23

Carcedo A., Sagot M., Femicidio en Costa Rica. 1990-1999, Pan American Health Organisation - Women, Health and Development Programme, San José, Costa Rica, 2000, p. 11.

24

La Casa del Encuentro (n.d.). Femicidios, available at: http://www.lacasadelencuentro.org/femicidios.html

25

Reina Sofía Centre Institute (ICRS), III Informe Internacional. Violencia contra la mujer en las relaciones de pareja. Estadísticas y Legislación, Document Series 16,

2010a, available at:

http://www.fundacionluisvives.org/upload/88/18/informe.pdf ; Reina Sofía Centre Institute (ICRS), Informe: Mujeres asesinadas por su pareja. España (2000-2009). Instituto Universitario para el Estudio de la Violencia (University

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Institute for the Study of Violence) / ICRS, 2010b, available

at

http://www.psicologo-valencia.es/resources/Informe+femicidio+en+espa$C3$B1a+ 2000-2010.pdf

In Spain, the reports on mortal victims of gender-based violence by the Spanish General Council of the Judiciary use the expression “femicide” but restricted only to "the violent death of women exercised by their present or former spouse or by men with whom they maintain or have maintained analogous affective relations” (Consejo General del Poder Judicial General (CGPJ) Council of the Judiciary, Spain, Informe sobre víctimas mortales de la violencia de género y de la violencia doméstica en el ámbito de la pareja o ex pareja en 2011, 2011, p. 7, available at: http://www.poderjudicial.es/stfls/CGPJ/OBSERVATORIO% 20DE%20VIOLENCIA%20DOM%C3%89STICA/INFORM ES/FICHERO/20120705%20Informe%20sobre%20v%C3% ADctimas%20mortales%20de%20la%20VG%20y%20VD% 20%C3%A1mbito%20pareja%202011.pdf. The meaning of "femicide" is broader in feminist organisations (Laporta E., “España: Una restringida acepción de la “violencia de género” y los feminicidios”, in: Heinrich Böll Stiftung – European Union, Feminicidio: Un fenómeno Global. De Madrid a Santiago, Brussels, 2013, pp. 38–40).

26

Karadole C., Femminicidi in Italia nel corso del 2006: indagine sulla stampa. Casa delle donne per non subire violenza di Bologna / Università degli Studi Roma Tre, 2007,

available at:

https://femicidiocasadonne.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/fem minicidi-in-italia-nel-2006-karadole.pdf; Giari S., Femminicidio. Recerca sulla stampa italiana nell’anno 2007. Centre for women against violence in Bologna (Italy), 2008,

available at:

https://femicidiocasadonne.files.wordpress.com/2013/05/ricer ca_femicidi_nel2009.pdf; Adolfi L. Et. Al., Il costo di essere donna: Indagini sul femicidio in Italia. I dati del 2010. Centre for women against violence in Bologna (Italy), 2010,

available at:

https://femicidiocasadonne.files.wordpress.com/2013/05/fem minicidio_2010.pdf; Spinelli B., Femminicidio. Dalla denuncia sociale al riconoscimento giuridico internazionale, FrancoAngeli, Milano, 2008; Crociati P. Et. Al., Indagine sui femicidi in Italia realizzata sui dati della stampa nazionale e locale: Anno 2013. Centre for women against violence in

Bologna (Italy), 2014, available at:

https://femicidiocasadonne.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/ricer ca-femicidi-dati_2013.pdf

In the United Kingdom: Ingala-Smith K., Fisher H., “United Kingdom. The need for a broader approach to femicide”, in Jiménez P., Toledo P., de Socarraz-Novoa L. (Eds), Feminicide: A Global Phenomenon. From Santiago to Brussels, Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung – European Union, Brussels, 2015.

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27

Acale M., La discriminación hacia la mujer por razón de género en el Código Penal, Editorial Reus, Madrid, 2006. Uxoricide, or the killing of one's wife, remained in force in the Spanish legal system until the approval of Law 79/1961 of 23 December, yet it was not abolished because it was believed to be archaic and unjust, but because it was considered that the same effects could be achieved with the application of the general mitigating circumstances of the Code (Sáinz J., “La condición jurídica de la mujer en el Código Penal español”, in Spanish Yearbook of Social and Legal Studies, No. 4, 1975, pp. 205-236).

28_{In Haiti up to 2005, there was a rule that absolved the}

husband who killed his wife in certain cases (United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women / United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, Good practices in legislation on “harmful practices” against women, Report of the expert group meeting. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 26 to 29

May 2009, pag. 25, available at:

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/vaw_legislation_2 009/Report%20EGM%20harmful%20practices.pdf, and in Mexico, even nowadays, the criminal codes of some States contemplate homicide for honour reasons (Incháustegui T., López M. (Coords.), Feminicidio en México. Aproximación, tendencias y cambios, 1985–2009, Mexico: UN Women, National Institute for Women (Mexico), Special Commission on Feminicides - 59th Legislature, Chamber of Deputies, 2011, pag. 25).

29

MacKinnon C., Hacia una teoría feminista del Estado, Madrid, Cátedra, 1995; Facio A., Cuando el género suena

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30_{United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC),}

Global Study on Homicide 2013. Trends, contexts, data,

2014, electronic document available at:

https://www.unodc.org/documents/gsh/pdfs/2014_GLOBAL _HOMICIDE_BOOK_web.pdf

31

It constitutes a central reference point for the Latin American feminist movement for historic and political reasons (Toledo P., Femicidio / feminicidio, Ediciones Didot, Buenos Aires, 2014, pp. 64-73). Furthermore, in the area of international human rights law, the criminalisation of diverse crimes was a requirement after the dictatorships and conflicts of the decades from 1960 to 1980 in the region, including the criminalisation of torture, forced disappearances, etc.

32

The Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women, adopted in Belem do Para, Brazil, in 1994.

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The general obligation to guarantee human rights without discrimination is sufficient to justify these specific laws, without the need to draw on special provisions or to qualify these measures as "special measures". They can be considered as affirmative actions but, while this may be appropriate from a theoretical perspective, it is not necessary from the legal perspective of human rights' obligations, nor does it contribute to a better understanding of these laws.

34

Judgment 3441-2004 of the Costa Rican Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court of Justice, of 31 March 2004.

35

Among others, Judgments of the Spanish Constitutional Court (STC) No. 59/2008, of 14 May 2008 and STC No. 45/2009, of 19 February 2009, on unconstitutional issues of Articles 153.1 and 171.4 of the Criminal Code (in its current wording, resulting from Organic Law 1/2004, of 28

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December, on Comprehensive Protection Measures against Gender-Based Violence).

36_{During the legislative process of the law that criminalised}

femicide in Costa Rica (between 1999 and 2007), this aspect was persistently addressed by those that questioned the constitutionality of this regulation.

37

For example, the criticism of Gimbernat (Gimbernat E., "Prólogo", in Código Penal, 10th edition, Tecnos, Madrid, 2004) of Spanish Organic Law 1/2004, on Comprehensive Protection Measures against gender-based violence, precisely qualifies it as an example of ‘offender-based criminal law’. In similar terms, the Opinion of the Spanish General Council of the Judiciary adopted regarding the “Preliminary Draft of the Organic Law for comprehensive measures against violence exercised towards women”, on 24 June 2004 (CGPJ, 2004). Against this criticism, among others: Laurenzo P., “La Violencia de Género en la Ley Integral. Valoración político-criminal”, in Revista Electrónica de Ciencia Penal y Criminología, núm. 07-08,

2005, pp. 1–23, available at:

http://criminet.ugr.es/recpc/07/recpc07-08.pdf; Maqueda M.L., “¿Es la estrategia penal una solución a la violencia contra las mujeres? Algunas respuestas desde un discurso feminista crítico”, InDret, n. 4, October 2007; Larrauri E., “Igualdad y violencia de género. Comentario a la STC 59/2008”, InDret: Revista para el Análisis del Derecho, n. 1, 2009, available at: http://www.indret.com/pdf/597.pdf ; Nicolás G., Bodelón E. (Comps.), Género y Dominación. Críticas feministas del derecho y el poder, Desafío(s) 7, Ed. Anthropos, Barcelona, 2009.

38

Among those which, historically, crimes against women have been excluded (Toledo P., Femicidio / feminicidio, Ediciones Didot, Buenos Aires, 2014, pp. 177 et ss.).

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This is also controversial when it is argued, for example, that there is no justification for punishing an individual for sexism that is also present in the society, or an act of racism, when the societies are also racist, etc. In general terms, the issue is like punishing economic crimes, although we live in societies that promote greed. These cases point to the responsibility of the State to actively promote the eradication of these social values (sexism, racism, etc.), and the use of criminal law is another State action to promote a more equal and fair society.

40

There are specific elements in several countries. For example, in Guatemala, among others, when a woman’s death is a consequence of group rituals or in the presence of the victim's children; in Bolivia, that the crime is committed

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41

As it happen in some cases in Mexican and Guatemalan law.

42

That is what happens in the Mexican states of Guerrero, Guanajuato and Tamaulipas, among others.

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43

It is interesting to point out that in Argentina, the expression “femicide” had been used in some judgments even before this legal reform was approved, particularly in intimate partner homicide cases where there had been previous violence exercised by the perpetrator against the victim. For example, Judgment of 23 August 2012, of Oral Criminal Court No. 9 of Buenos Aires.

44

Law No. 26.791, enacted on 11 December 2012, published on 14 December of the same year.

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47

Halfon F., Álvarez L., Exclusive interview to Zaffaroni, Minister of the Supreme Court of Justice: "La libertad condicional no está controlada en el país", Tiempo Argentino,

2012, 2 December,

http://tiempo.infonews.com/nota/19464/zaffaroni-la-libertad-condicional-no-esta-controlada-en-el-pais

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48

Argentinian Law No. 26.485, on Comprehensive Protection to Prevent, Punish and Eradicate Violence against Women, adopted in March 2009, defines “violence against women” according to Belem do Para Convention, but not “gender-based violence”.

49

Normally exercised against those that have different gender identities or orientation to the dominant majority, as occurs with lesbian, gay, intersex, transgender and transsexual people, or against any person that do not adapt their behaviour to the dominant heteronormative model.

50

Juliano D., Les altres dones. La construcció de l’exclusió social. Els discursos que ens uneixen i ens separen, Institut Català de les Dones (Catalan Women's Institute), Barcelona, 2006.

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The severity of the criminal system towards lesbians has already been documented in some studies (Streib, 1995; Robson, 1992, 2004). The application of aggravated sanctions for gender-based violence to women that assault other women may constitute a form of discrimination against lesbians due to their sexual orientation (Nicolás G., Bodelón E. (Comps.), Género y Dominación. Críticas feministas del derecho y el poder, Desafío(s) 7, Ed. Anthropos, Barcelona, 2009, p. 255) and, in any case, it is a use that does not fit in with the objectives of the criminalisation of femicide.

52

Larrauri E., “Igualdad y violencia de género. Comentario a la STC 59/2008”, InDret: Revista para el Análisis del Derecho, n. 1, 2009, p. 6, available at: http://www.indret.com/pdf/597.pdf ; Laurenzo P., “La Violencia de Género en la Ley Integral. Valoración político-criminal”, in Revista Electrónica de Ciencia Penal y Criminología, núm. 07-08, 2005, p. 17, available at: http://criminet.ugr.es/recpc/07/recpc07-08.pdf

53

In Spain, where Organic Law 1/2004 increased the sanctions of various crimes committed against women in the context of intimate partner relationships, it has been debated as to whether the aggravation would be applied to crimes committed by women, i.e. relationships between lesbians. In terms of case-law, however, unlike what has occurred to date in Mexico, it has been sustained that these aggravated sanctions are not applicable in lesbian couples, notwithstanding that these acts, just like violence in gay couples, are punished in accordance with domestic violence rules. This option only leaves men as possible active subjects,

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which would fit both the preventive purposes of the rule - by directing the message at potential offenders (Ruiz A., “La ley contra la violencia de género y la discriminación positiva”, in Jueces para la Democracia, No. 55, 2006, p. 44) - and the greater damage in these behaviours, as indicated by the Spanish Constitutional Court, since it damages the safety, freedom and dignity of the victims (STCE 59/2008, of 14 May).

54

Toledo P., “Limits and difficulties in implementing the recommendations of international human rights bodies on the classification of feminicide as a crime in México: first laws and judgments”, in Anaya Muñoz A., García Campos A. (compilers), Recomendaciones Internacionales a México en materia de derechos humanos. Contrastes con la situación en el país, Mexico City, Office in Mexico of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2013, pp. 55-78. See, for example, the study Estudio de la Implementación del Tipo Penal de feminicide en México: Causas y consecuencias 2012 y 2013, of the National Citizen's Observatory for Feminicide (OCNF) in Mexico, which states that the perpetrator is only identified in 20% of the cases reported in the countries, precisely in the cases when this was the partner, a family member of another person close to the victim. In 80% of cases, the authorities do not know who the perpetrators are (Observatorio Ciudadano Nacional del Feminicidio (OCNF), Estudio de la implementación del tipo penal de feminicidio en México: Causas y consecuencias. 2012-2013, Mexico, 2014, p. 199, available at:

http://observatoriofeminicidiomexico.org.mx/wp- content/uploads/2015/01/17-NOV-Estudio-feminicidio-en-Mexico-Version-web-1.pdf

55

Carcedo A. (Coord.), No olvidamos ni aceptamos: Femicidio en Centroamérica 2000-2006, CEFEMINA Feminist Centre for Information and Action, San José, Costa Rica, 2010; Toledo P., “The drug-war femicides / Femicidios de la guerra contra las drogas”, The Project Syndicate, 9

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http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/the-drug-war-femicides

56_{Oral Court of Corrientes, Case No. 97877/13 "Sosa García}

Adrián Walter Edgardo p/sup. Lesiones graves calificadas. Vic. Elizabeth Antonia Verón”, judgment of 08/08/2013. Fourth Chamber, Salta, Case No. 2337/14, “Salva, Horacio Perfecto por los delitos de homicidio en grado de tentativa, lesiones agravadas por el vínculo y amenazas con arma en concurso real”, judgment of 26/05/2014.

57

For example, Judgment No. 15/2014 of 4 July 2014 of the First District Criminal Court Chamber of Catamarca; Pre-trial detention order of 17 February 2014, of the Court of Guarantee No. 4 of Mar del Plata, in Case No. 876-15 for attempted femicide.

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There may be some exceptions in cases when the death of a spouse, partner or girlfriend is committed in the context of an attack on a collective where the woman is not the motive but simply another victim, e.g. if a man kills his parents, parents-in-law, spouse and other family members in a context of violence initially directed at his parents. The reality, however, demonstrates that the majority of attacks on entire families (as in cases when the perpetrator kills the spouse and children and then commits suicide) constitute an expression of violence against women.

59

For example, the judgment of 26 May 2014 of the Fourth Chamber in the Criminal Court of Salta, in Case CAM No. 2.337/14, states: “Both the accounts of Ms. R. and her children, and the accounts of the neighbours, clearly prove a

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situation of family violence over a long time, which are validated by the records of family violence files (…) brought ad effectum videndi et probandi, which contain several exclusions from the home and coming within a certain distance (…), which was increasingly aggravated over the

years, mainly because of the indecision of the aforementioned woman to put an end to it, for whatever

reason” (Own highlighting).

60

The Bill of Indictment of 25 November 2014 of the National Criminal Instruction Courthouse No. 13 of Buenos Aires, CCC 43587/2014 states: “(…) it does not seem to be wrong to conclude that to accredit femicide or feminicide (sic), it should be proven that the perpetrator and the victim, before the death, had had a relationship over time, although I repeat, more than just for a short time, for this unhealthy