IN
DEVELOPING CITIES
AN INTEGRATED APPROACH FOR PLANNING INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION PROJECTS
Eng. Navarro Ferronato Ph.D. student
University of Insubria
Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences
Ph.D. course in Environmental Sciences 32nd cycle (2016 - 2019)
Supervisor
Prof. Eng. Vincenzo Torretta
Abstract v
Acknowledgement vii
Nomenclature ix
Introduction xiii
1 Research outline: Study area, objectives and actors involved 1
1.1 Study area . . . . 2
1.2 Aim and scope of the research . . . . 5
1.3 Local and International stakeholders: the cooperation network . . . . 6
1.4 Overview and structure of the thesis . . . . 8
2 SWM in developing countries: the case of La Paz (Bolivia) 13 2.1 A brief review of current waste management issues in developing countries 14 2.1.1 Environmental contamination due to solid waste mismanagement . 14 2.1.2 Informal sector and social inclusion . . . 28
2.1.3 Challenges and opportunities . . . 31
2.2 MSW management in La Paz: "Wasteaware" benchamark indicators and waste flow analysis . . . 33
2.2.1 Methods . . . 33
2.2.2 Results - Physical components . . . 35
2.2.3 Results - Governance aspects of MSWM system in La Paz . . . 43
2.2.4 Improvements of the MSW from 2016 to 2018 . . . 46
2.2.5 Comparison with other cities worldwide . . . 49
2.3 Discussion . . . 50
3 Sustainable solutions and technologies: Assessing future MSWM scenar- ios 59 3.1 The introduction of the CE model in developing countries: Opportunities and main issues . . . 60
3.1.1 Waste Collection and transportation . . . 60
3.1.2 Waste treatment and final disposal . . . 62
3.1.3 CE model . . . 68
3.2 MSW Management: Which scenario is suitable for improving the recycling rate? . . . 74
3.2.1 Introduction . . . 74
3.2.2 Management scenarios . . . 75
3.2.3 Method - MCDA-questionnaire survey . . . 78
3.2.6 Results - Impact assessment . . . 87
3.2.7 Results - Integrated assessment of the scenarios . . . 90
3.2.8 Pros and cons of the methodology . . . 91
3.3 Discussion . . . 92
3.3.1 MSWM issues in La Paz and the implementation of the CE model . . 92
3.3.2 Remarks and considerations . . . 93
4 Management tools and methods for planning the CE principles 99 4.1 Citizens’ behavior about formal and informal recycling: Questionnaire sur- veys as assessment tool . . . 100
4.1.1 Introduction . . . 100
4.1.2 Methods . . . 101
4.1.3 Results . . . 107
4.1.4 Comparison among the results of the questionnaires . . . 113
4.1.5 Policies implications . . . 114
4.1.6 Remarks and considerations . . . 118
4.2 LCA of SWM future scenarios: Application of the software WRATE . . . 120
4.2.1 Introduction . . . 120
4.2.2 Methods . . . 121
4.2.3 Results . . . 129
4.2.4 Strengths and Limitations of the study . . . 133
4.2.5 Comparison with other case studies . . . 135
4.2.6 Lessons learned and future improvements . . . 136
4.2.7 Remarks and considerations . . . 137
4.3 How to assess formal and informal SC systems future scenarios: an inte- grated assessment with QGIS . . . 138
4.3.1 Introduction . . . 138
4.3.2 Overview of the methods . . . 139
4.3.3 Methods - Dimensioning and location of MSW containers . . . 143
4.3.4 Methods - Analysis of MSW collection routes . . . 144
4.3.5 Methods - Estimation of the MSW disposed and formally recycled . 145 4.3.6 Methods - Estimation of the costs . . . 146
4.3.7 Results . . . 147
4.3.8 Potentiality of the approach and implications of informal sector in- clusion . . . 151
4.3.9 Policy implications . . . 152
4.3.10Limits of the study and future improvements . . . 153
4.3.11Remarks and considerations . . . 154
4.4 Introduction of SC systems: a pilot project implemented at the University 155 4.4.1 Introduction . . . 155
4.4.2 Methods - Approach of the analysis . . . 156
4.4.3 Methods - Analysis of the waste fractions . . . 159
4.4.4 Methods - Questionnaire survey submitted to the students . . . 160
4.4.5 Results - Quantities of waste generated at the University . . . 163
4.4.6 Results - Answers of the questionnaires survey - before and after the implementation of the project . . . 165
4.4.7 Challenges for the implementation of SC systems . . . 169
4.5 Hazardous waste streams: implementation of HWM indicators . . . 172
4.5.1 Introduction . . . 172
4.5.2 Methods . . . 173
4.5.3 Results . . . 182
4.5.4 HWM issues in La Paz and other developing cities . . . 188
4.5.5 Potentiality of the HWM indicators . . . 189
4.5.6 Limits of the study and future improvements . . . 189
4.5.7 Remarks and considerations . . . 190
4.6 Discussion . . . 191
5 Implementation of international cooperation projects 201 5.1 Recycling, material recovery, research and information: the project financed by the AICS . . . 202
5.1.1 Partners involved and SDGs of the project . . . 203
5.1.2 Logical framework: objectives, results and activities . . . 205
5.1.3 Impacts of the action and time for its implementation . . . 208
5.2 Social inclusion and innovation: the project submitted to the European Commission . . . 210
5.2.1 Project beneficiaries and main needs . . . 210
5.2.2 Objectives of the proposal . . . 212
5.2.3 Results and actions . . . 213
5.2.4 Main impacts of the project . . . 217
5.3 Discussion . . . 219 6 Conclusions and remarks: Future perspectives and developments 223
Solid waste management (SWM) issues are an environmental and social burden, which affect mainly the population of low-middle income countries worldwide, as well as the global environment. The introduction of sustainable and integrated SWM sys- tems is compulsory for improving sustainability at global level. The application of the circular economy (CE) principles (reuse of waste materials) is considered the main so- lution for reducing the use of raw materials and energy, in order to spread the economy of the waste, improving the social inclusion, environmental sustainability and economic resilience. The active role of Universities and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO), among other international stakeholders and funders, is imperative for starting environ- mental and social projects for introducing actions towards sustainable development in areas with low financial and technical availability.
This research is focused on the analysis and application of the methodological ap- proaches for introducing the CE in developing cities, where the lack of know-how, reg- ulations, social acceptance, political will and the constant increase in environmental impacts reduce the hope of success in implementing sustainable SWM systems. The objectives of the research are: (1) Provide an integrated approach for planning sus- tainable SWM systems in developing big cities of Latin America; (2) Demonstrate the importance of the inclusion of the informal recycling in the formal SWM system for im- proving waste recovery; (3) Draft an international cooperation project for introducing new appropriate technologies and sensitivity campaigns for boosting CE.
The case study of this research is La Paz (Bolivia), low-middle income city where international support is required for starting CE projects. The research is divided in four main parts: (1) first assessment of the municipal SWM system of the city and statement of the problem, (2) analysis of potential future scenarios, (3) analysis and implementation of tools and methods for SWM planning, and (4) proposal and sub- mission of international cooperation projects. The first three steps are implemented according to technical and scientific approaches that allow supporting the finding of the research, while the last point is the consequence of the approaches and studies introduced.
The results allow suggesting that La Paz is under development for implementing sustainable SWM systems and it is quite developed if compared with other cities lo- cated in similar low-income contexts. The inclusion of waste pickers and informal recyclers can be considered the most useful option in terms of technical and financial issues, exploiting a CE system just in place. The population is ready for starting take back programs and selective collection activities, since more than 50% of the popu- lation is just used to implement the separate collection at home, providing the sep- arate materials mainly to the informal sector. At the same time, the implementation of recycling activities allows obtaining preliminary good results in terms of citizens involvement and selective collection rate, suggesting that information campaigns and
management costs, if compared with a complete SWM system, while environmental impacts are always reduced thanks to recycling. The main issues are: how the waste pickers can be included? Where financial support can be obtained? How technical knowledge can be shared? The same issues were found in the management of health- care waste (produced in hospitals), showing that municipal solid waste is not the only fraction that should be managed properly.
These findings, as well as the cooperation with local and international stakeholders, allow writing and submitting two international cooperation projects. The first submit- ted to the Italian Agency for Development Cooperation, while the second submitted to the European Commission. The proposals used the methods, findings and collabora- tion started thanks to the Ph.D. research. The project submitted to the Italian Agency was approved and financed in June 2019. It started the 2nd of September, for support- ing the implementation of recycling activities in La Paz. The second project is about the inclusion of young innovators and the waste pickers for starting CE plans taking into account local knowledge, activities and markets. It passes the first step review, al- though it has not been approved at the final stage of review due to the low experience level of the Bolivian NGO for the management of financial resources.
In conclusion, the studies implemented in this Ph.D. research can be the baseline for building proposals that can be submitted for obtaining international funds, in order to introduce treatment plants, to use planning tools, to improve technical knowledge and to increase social acceptance in SWM systems of low-income areas. Moreover, the same research can be replicated and applied in similar developing cities where simple and effective solutions should be found in short terms, supported by technical approaches. The research demonstrates that the cooperation among various interna- tional and local actors, such as Universities, NGO and local Government, in parallel with the use of technical knowledge and methodologies can support the sustainable development in low-middle countries, driving low-middle income cities towards the CE.
I would like to thank my supervisors, Prof. Vincenzo Torretta and Prof. Marco Ragazzi, for their support in this long journey. They were the first that believed in my capacities and willingness. Thanks to my supervisors in Bolivia, Prof. Marcelo Gorritty and Prof.
Gabriela Guisbert since without their effort and support my whole research could not be implemented. At the same time, thanks to Eng. Farina Flores and the whole Munic- ipal Secretary for Environmental Management of La Paz, who supported my research providing me the opportunity to work with them. Thanks to Doc. Roberto Cavallini, country coordinator of the NGO COOPI, that trusted in my ideas and provided me the opportunity to support their NGO. Thanks to Don Antonio Ferronato, the real maker of this international cooperation teamwork. The Ph.D. research was supported by a Global Grant of the Rotary Foundation (GG1758711 Scholarship) provided by the Dis- trict 2060, the Clubs Rotary Bassano del Grappa Castelli and Rotary La Paz Sopocachi.
Thanks to all the Rotary members that supported this research fellow, in particular Mr. Bruno Bertacco and Mr. Mario Patuzzi. Thanks to Gianluza Preziosi and Marisol Torrez, the students that supported my research in GIS and healthcare waste manage- ment, respectively, and many thanks to all the volunteers that supported the research and the actions that I developed in La Paz during my stay. Finally, a huge thank you to Anna Maria, my bright star, and to my family, for their support and for understanding my distance and absence during my long period of stay in Bolivia. Here, in this work, I enclose my dreams for a sustainable future: I hope that it could be useful for the current and future generations.
Acronym Description
3Rs Reduce-reuse-recycle
AD Anaerobic digestion
AICS Italian agency for development cooperation
AP Acidification potential
BC Black carbon
C&DW Construction & demolition waste
CE Circular economy
CHP Combined heat and power
CI Confidence interval
COOPI Cooperazione internazionale
CRIC Construction resource initiatives council
DtD Door to door
EC European commission
EEA Environmental European agency
ELV End of life vehicles
EP Eutrophication potential
EPR Extended producer responsibility
EU European union
GAMLP Municipal autonomous government of La Paz
GHG Green-house gas
GIS Geographic information systems
GNI Gross national income
GP Green points
HW Healthcare waste
HWM Healthcare waste management
ISWA International solid waste association
LCA Life cycle assessment
LCIA Life cycle impact assessment
LCI Life cycle inventory
LFGCE Landfill gas collection efficiency
MBT Mechanical biological treatment
MCDA Multi-criteria decision analysis
MSWM Municipal solid waste management
MSW Municipal solid waste
NGOs Non-governmental organizations
OFMSW Organic fraction municipal solid waste
PAH poly-aromatic hydrocarbon
PPE Personal protective equipment
PPP Public private partnership
RDF Refuse derived fuel
RP Recycling policies
RR Recycling rate
SAW Simple additive weighting method
SC Selective collection
SCS Selective collection systems
SDGs Sustainable development goals
SRM Secondary raw materials
SSC Separate street containers
SRF Solid recovered fuel
SWM Solid waste management
TOC Total organic carbon
WBI Wasteaware benchmark indicators
WEEE Waste electrical and electronic equipment
WFA Waste flow analysis
WHO World health organization
WRATE Waste and resources assessment tool for the environment
WtE Waste to energy
Globally, an average person generates about 435 kg of municipal solid waste (MSW) per year, with about 50 kg of recyclable materials (paper, plastic, metal, glass) that can be potentially substitute the demand of virgin materials [1]. These amounts vary among low-income and high-income countries. For example, in Kenya, the genera- tion per capita is about110 kg y−1, in China229 kg y−1, in Mexico343 kg y−1, achieving 450 kg y−1in Spain and777 kg y−1in Canada [2]. The current annual MSW generation is estimated to 1.9 billion tonnes. Almost 30% is uncollected, while 70% of the collected is disposed of to landfills and dumpsites, only 19% is recycled or recovered and 11%
is converted to energy. To date, worldwide, the number of people that lacks access to elementary waste management services is estimated to 3.5 billion [2].
Through recycling, the ‘zero waste activity’ is encouraged and an average person could save around 216 kWh of energy, 0.05 kg of green-house gas (GHG) and 36L of processed water. In this way, it has been calculated that each person would potentially save about 61.3 USD annually, of which 17 USD derived from materials substitution, and 44 USD from energy substitution [1]. Moreover, it has been estimated that the appropriate management of solid waste allows reducing the global warming potential (GWP) for about 3%, while the sustainable use of the resources contributes its reduc- tion for at least 20% [3]. However, waste management is still a global challenge, also in this century, both in developed and developing countries [4]; therefore solutions should be applied involving all the stakeholders interested in such practice.
The main issues for improving the solid waste management (SWM) are detected in developing countries, where the lack of financial support, regulation, appropriate technologies, political will, public awareness and know-how makes the improvement of SWM a real challenge [5]. These difficulties improves the environmental contamination at global level due to the open dumping and open burning of solid waste, which are common practices in the developing world [6]. Indeed, the main source of GHG and leachate, influencing the global warming and the contamination of water bodies, is due to the open dumping of the organic waste fraction and the uncontrolled combustion of hazardous and municipal solid waste (MSW) [3]. So, the implementation of sustainable SWM in developing countries is compulsory for improving environmental sustainability at global level.
The Circular Economy (CE) is seen as the main solution for boosting the principle of the ’zero waste’. The main idea is to change the principle of produce-use-waste of goods with the reduce-reuse-recycle (3Rs) principle, using the waste as resource for the products of tomorrow [7].The principle of the CE were introduced in Europe in 2018, with the first CE package implemented for spreading the recycling of plastic materials, reducing the waste to sanitary landfill and reducing the food waste in order to improve sustainability [8]. CE would emulate the environment, redesigning the pro- duction of goods, optimizing natural resources use towards a closed cycles of materials
• First, a CE aims to reduce waste since products are designed for a cycle of disas- sembly and reuse.
• Second, circularity introduces a strict differentiation between consumable and durable components of a product, boosting the use of biological ingredients that can safely be returned to the biosphere, while inorganic are designed from the start for reuse.
• Third, the energy required should be renewable, again decreasing resource de- pendence and increase systems resilience
At global level, the principle of the CE were introduced within the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) developed by the United Nations. In particular, objective 12 - Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns - advise to improve the sustainable consumption of materials, energy and food, reducing the amounts of waste and reusing the waste produced [11]. Emphasis is given to the developing world, with specific targets for ensuring the sustainable improvement of the population standard of life also in low-middle income countries. An example is provided by indicator 12.a - Help developing countries strengthen their scientific and technological capacity to move towards more sustainable modes of consumption and production - .
Within the scientific literature, Chinese and European scholars reported many stud- ies and experiences about the implementation of CE, although at its early stage [12], while in developing countries, considered as low, low-middle and middle income coun- tries according to the classification of the World Bank, the CE is not still investigated and implemented [9]. In developing countries, the CE is mainly introduced by the informal recycling sector, represented by families with low-income level that recover recyclable materials for selling it to the local recycling market [13]. The recycling rates achieved is not comparable with modern systems; however, this sector saves the city authorities financial resources avoiding waste collection and disposal costs [14].
Bolivia is a low-middle country where the informal recycling sector live within cities and towns and where the environmental contamination due to SWM is a big issue. In- deed, the open burning of MSW, the uncontrolled disposal of hazardous waste, the lack of waste collection and the release of leachate to the waster bodies are only a few activ- ities that pollutes the environment, affecting the health of the population. Some pilot project were introduced in the last decade for introducing the CE principles, although with no effective results. Moreover, the theme of SWM is still under development and the country lacks the implementation of effective solutions.
The aim of this Ph.D. thesis is to assess the opportunities and challenges for intro- ducing the CE principles in a developing big city of Bolivia as example for improving the quality of the SWM at national level and for other countries of Latin America, where the implementation of recycling schemes are still under development. The approach starts with the analysis of the problem at global, national and municipal level, suggest- ing feasible CE scenarios. Then, the study introduces and analyzes the application of planning tools suited for a developing context. Moreover, the research investigates the social behavior in recycling activities, environmental impacts of MSWM scenarios, and the pros and cons of the implementation of a selective collection (SC) system in urban areas. Finally, the study provides an example of the implementation of the planning
The document is divided in five main chapters. In the first chapter the study area, the stakeholders involved, the aim and scope of the thesis and the overview of the methods used are introduced. The second chapter contains the SWM issues typical of developing countries and the ones detected in the case study, comparing opportuni- ties and challenges for introducing the CE principles in La Paz and other developing cities. The third part of the thesis develops the CE models which could be theoretically implemented in developing countries and within the case study, compared with other scenarios that could be implemented in the context by a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) and a preliminary quantitative assessment of the GWP, material recycling and cost savings. Chapter four introduced the methods used for assessing the feasibility of the implementation of a CE system in the city by a social survey, method used for assessing the social behavior about the SC of MSW, the introduction of a SC pilot plan at the University, for demonstrating which challenges are typical for introducing the system in public areas, the assessment of the environmental impacts by a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the scenarios introduced in Chapter three, the use of geographic information systems (GIS) for assessing the feasibility of implementing SC within the city, and finally the application an indicator set introduced for analyzing the healthcare waste management (HWM), implemented for assessing the main issues for improving the system and reducing the environmental and operational problems at the sanitary landfill. Finally, Chapter five explains the international cooperation projects drafted and submitted thanks to all the steps reported in the previous chapters. Conclusions and future perspectives are reported in the last part of the thesis.
The research is a path started from a Msc degree thesis on Environmental Engi- neering, where a network of stakeholders and actors has been built in order to start an international cooperation process. The Ph.D. research was implemented after an accu- rate assessment of local SWM issues and potentialities in order to understand how the SWM system can be improved and which technologies are most suited for the context.
The study ends with the drafting, submission of two international cooperation projects wrote with four different partners and submitted to the Italian Agency for Development Cooperation (AICS) and to the European Commission (EC). The novelty of this research is the implementation of various management and assessment tools about MSWM for providing an integrated frameworks of a developing city, in order to obtain financial resources for starting sustainable and integrated MSWM pilot projects, taking into ac- count local opportunities (i.e. informal recycling) and challenges. Therefore, this Ph.D.
study is an example about the feasibility to start integrated international cooperation projects about the implementation of SWM plans starting from zero, with two main requirements: the aid of national and international Universities, Non-Governmental organizations (NGOs), private companies and the local Government; and the continu- ity of the research.
[1] Zaman, A. U., and Swapan, M. S. H. (2016). Performance evaluation and benchmarking of global waste man- agement systems. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 114, 32-41.
[2] Waste Atlas. http://www.atlas.d-waste.com/. Waste Atlas is an online database, produced in collaboration be- tween D-Waste, ISWA, Waste to Energy Research and Technology Council (WtERT), Solid Waste Exchange of Information and Expertise Network (SWEEP-Net), the Society of Solid Waste Management Experts in Asia and Pacific Islands (SWAPI), and the University of Leeds.
[3] Wilson, D. C., Rodic, L., Modak, P., Soos, R., Carpintero, A., Velis, K., ... and Simonett, O. (2015). Global waste management outlook. UNEP.
[4] Wilson, D. C. and Velis, C. A. (2015). Waste management–still a global challenge in the 21st century: An evidence-based call for action.
[5] Guerrero, L. A., Maas, G., and Hogland, W. (2013). Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries. Waste management, 33(1), 220-232.
[6] Zhang, T., Fiedler, H., Yu, G., Ochoa, G. S., Carroll Jr, W. F., Gullett, B. K., ... and Touati, A. (2011). Emissions of unintentional persistent organic pollutants from open burning of municipal solid waste from developing countries. Chemosphere, 84(7), 994-1001.
[7] Stahel, W. R. (2016). The circular economy. Nature News, 531(7595), 435.
[8] EPRS - European Parliamentary Research Service (2018). Circular economy package: Four legislative proposals on waste. Members’ Research Service. PE 614.766.
[9] Ghisellini, P., Cialani, C.,& Ulgiati, S. (2016). A review on circular economy: the expected transition to a bal- anced interplay of environmental and economic systems. Journal of Cleaner production, 114, 11-32.
[10] Ellen MacArthur Foundation and McKinsey & Company (2014). Towards the Circular Economy: Accelerating the scale-up across global supply chains. World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland.
[11] United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. A/RES/70/1.
sustainabledevelopment.un.org
[12] Geissdoerfer, M., Savaget, P., Bocken, N. M., & Hultink, E. J. (2017). The Circular Economy–A new sustainability paradigm?. Journal of cleaner production, 143, 757-768.
[13] Wilson, D. C., Velis, C., & Cheeseman, C. (2006). Role of informal sector recycling in waste management in developing countries. Habitat international, 30(4), 797-808.
[14] Wilson, D. C., Rodic, L., Scheinberg, A., Velis, C. A., and Alabaster, G. (2012). Comparative analysis of solid waste management in 20 cities. Waste Management & Research, 30(3), 237-254.
Research outline: Study area, objectives and actors involved
- It is right to save the humanity, it is wrong to pollute this earth, it is right to give hope to the future generations - Al Gore (An inconvenient sequel, 2019)
Introduction
In this chapter, the baseline information of the research are provided, in order to in- troduce the study area and the country where the field work took place, the main objectives of the research and the network involved in the international cooperation process. In particular, the first section contains information about the geographical area and the economic state of the country (Bolivia) and the developing city (La Paz) where the research was developed, introducing the SWM system of the country. These information are useful for understanding the main issues detected in the study area and the advantages for introducing a project of international cooperation.
In the second part of the chapter, the aim of the research is introduced, explaining which issues are addressed and specifying what is the reason for the implementation of the research. The third section introduces the stakeholders involved in the research, specifying their role and their support for solving the main issues identified within the study area. Finally, the last section introduces the methods used, the theoretical frame- work followed for introducing the international cooperation project and the structure of the thesis, for explaining all the theoretical and practical studies implemented.
1.1 Study area
Bolivia and its SWM
The research was implemented in Bolivia, classified by the World Bank (2017) as a low-middle income country (GNI of 3,070 USD per inhabitants) with a population of about 10,500,000 inhabitants [1]. Bolivia is located in the center of the South America continent, with a land extension of 1,098,581km2and a population density of about 9.5 inhabitants per km2. Due to the high poverty rate, about 39% of the population, and the low alphabetization, Bolivia is a region of priority for the International Cooperation for developing development projects. For this reason, it has been considered as case study for the Ph.D. study.
Bolivia is divided in nine department with 112 provinces and 327 municipalities.
The capital city is Sucre, while the center of the Government is La Paz. At national level, Bolivia presented three levels of government: The central government, the autonomous departmental government and the autonomous municipal government, which are all active in regulation and management controls. This improves difficulties in the implementation of new management plans, especially regarding environmental themes, since the main topics considered referred to the economic development.
At national level, the SWM is in charge of the Deputy Minister of Potable water and Sanitation, by means of the SWM direction agency, responsible of the introduction of new polices and development plans at National level. It has been estimated that in 2010 the generation of solid waste achieved 1,677,650 tons per year, among which 85% were produced within urban areas, while 15% in rural towns [2]. Therefore, the national production of MSW in urban areas was about 0.5 kg inh−1d−1 while in rural areas was about 0.2 kg inh−1d−1, with significatn differences among cities, towns and rural communities.
Generally, within the cities, municipal companies provide sanitation services in four different forms: (1) direct management from the municipalities, (2) from an indirect office of the municipality, (3) from public decentralized companies that can be au- tonomous or (4) private companies engaged by the municipality. In 2010, 51% of the municipalities, which are mostly of little dimensions (2,000 inhabitants), were not pro- vided by sanitation services. Within the cities where SWM is applied, only 17% ob- tained urban charges, which allow covering 40-60% of the total costs. As a result, this practice influences the financial sustainability of a municipality, which must use im- portant economic resources mostly for the collection of MSW, among the other waste fractions, such as industrial waste, healthcare waste and construction & demolition waste (C&D) [2].
The service covered 86% of the areas in capital cities, 78% of bigger municipalities, 63% of the minor municipalities and 42% of the rural areas. It means that the rest of the solid waste generated is burred, burned or disposed of in open sites, contaminating the soil and water bodies.
It has been estimated that, at national level, only 4.6% of MSW is recovered by the informal and formal recycling sector and introduced within the recycling chain.
The informal sector is widespread within the country, since it is a common practice for poor people or households, which can achieve a financial sustainability by sending recyclable materials to an informal sector that is growing in dimension. It has been estimated that around 10,000 people work like informal pickers within the country [2].
Considering that each waste picker can collect more than 100 kg of recyclable waste per week, about 50,000 tons per year of recyclable materials are recovered by the informal sector.
An important role is made by the NGOs that work in the country, both in rural and urbanized areas, and collaborate with different national and international stakehold- ers. The efforts applied by these groups led to implement new programs that aid the public governments to improve the informal recycling sector and the formal recycling systems. For instance, Swisscontact, with the program “Ecovecindarios” allows the implementation of 378 new jobs and the collection of 15,900 tons of recyclable waste in three years [4, 5].
The worst environmental issue come from final disposal sites, which receive only 45% of solid waste from formal collection systems in the whole country, since only 8%
of final disposal sites in Bolivia are sanitary landfills. It means that final disposal is mostly uncontrolled, without environmental monitoring, growing the threat of disease and pollution, as depicted in Figure 1.1 where two photos took in rural areas of Bolivia during the field works are reported.
Figure 1.1: Open dump sites of Bolivia manged in rural communities and towns (source: personal photos took during the field work in 2018 )
Low financial sustainability, technical facilities and management plans do not en- courage Bolivian policy-makers to introduce new solutions in order to improve san- itation systems [2]. However, in 2015 the first national law was introduced by the National Government, while in 2016 was introduced the first regulation about SWM.
In these documents, some new concepts were introduced, such as the extended pro- ducer responsibility (EPR), which has been introduced although it has not been applied yet due to the lack of monitoring and a management system. Some technological im- provements are going to be introduced, mostly by the international cooperation and by South American economic aids. Finally, the inclusion of the informal recycling sector is encouraged ant the principle of 3Rs was introduced, that represent a good starting point for a low-middle income country.
As regards the implementation of national targets and objectives, in 2011 the na- tional program for SWM was introduced, where future strategies, projects and goals were announced. For the end of 2015 the objectives were the reduction of the MSW generation index of about 1% in comparison of 2010, improve the operation activity of 15% of the final disposal sites, improve the service covering of 5% at national level, involve the citizens in 15% of the Bolivian municipalities and at the same time improve the technical management within 15% of the cities. This program is carried out by the
national policy; however, international economic funds were introduced for an amount of about 62 million USD [3]. To date, there are not public information about the evolu- tion of such indicators, and it is difficult to estimate the current improvement applied within the country.
SWM is still a difficult issue and in continue development while only a few and scattered studies about SWM are available into the scientific literature as well as re- liable data. However, the recycling activities applied by the private sector could be a viable way for public MSW management service, since the recyclable materials could be sold to these recycling facilities. Differently by the occidental approach, currently the public management could gain form the sold of recyclable materials, representing an opportunity for the public management. So, municipalities should not pay for its exploitation, and it means that circular economy could be more attractive for munici- palities.
La Paz
The case study of the research is La Paz, developing big city of Bolivia. La Paz is lo- cated in central Bolivia, close to the Andean plateau and the Real Mountain Range.
With a high rate of urbanization (estimated at about 1.1%) [7] due to population move- ments from the rural areas to the big cities, poor political urban planning and lack of waste water treatment, among others environmental and social issues, La Paz is faced with many negative environmental impacts, such as river water pollution, soil contamination and erosion, water scarcity and air contamination.
The city has a population of about 850,000-950,000 inhabitants (data not confirmed but used by local authority offices), which raises to 2,000,000 if added with the nearest El Alto city population: approximately 20% of Bolivia’s total population. It should be highlighted that the official information stated that the city of La Paz has a population of about 764,617 [7].
La Paz, being the Government seat, is also one of the most developed and built Bolivian cities, while the absence of free areas leads to city center growing with bulky buildings and skyscrapers, which increase the issues concerning public service provi- sion. The average city altitude (3,600 m a.s.l.), the problematic morphology and the limited area for the expansion of the city combined, means serious difficulties in pub- lic services development and regional control. La Paz is located within a multitude of valleys and rifts, with different slopes, which do not allow the introduction of new infrastructures and factories. Moreover, issues regarding urban planning are encour- aging the spread of uncontrolled settlements within the external areas which are not provided with public services such as water, sanitation and energy.
Such problems should be considered for evaluating the provision of an efficient MSWM service since there are difficulties in MSW collection and the implementa- tion of new facilities for the treatment and final disposal of waste. For these reasons, management tools, new technologies and affordable plans are needed for facing the environmental contamination due to SWM, which considered the MSW, C&D waste, Healthcare waste management (HWM), hazardous waste, among others.
1.2 Aim and scope of the research
The aim of the study is to support the implementation of new projects and activities for improving the SWM system in La Paz. La Paz is considered as the example at national level for introducing innovative systems and plans that can be therefore introduced in other municipalities of Bolivia. For this reason, the implementation of new SWM plans in La Paz means to introduce high impacts changes in Bolivia, boosting the sustainable development at national level.
Due to the physical characteristics of the city, the SWM is very difficult and there are many issues that should be overcome. The most important issue detected by the local Government is the management of the sanitary landfill, one of the biggest and most developed of Bolivia. The sanitary landfill of the city is located within a valley at 15 km far from the city. However, its useful life is estimated at no more than 2 years from 2019, while there is not a plan for starting the implementation of a new final disposal site. The main issue is the location of the site, since La Paz has no free spaces for introducing it. Therefore, the situation imposed to build a new sanitary landfill 40 km far from the city, with high management and transportation costs. In January 2019, the sanitary landfill collapsed due to a landslide that contaminated the whole area and caused the close of the site. New management actions are compulsory for reducing the waste inflow into the final disposal site and for improving the quality of the SWM of the city.
The implementation of new management plans are required for enhancing the MSW recycling rate, for reducing the hazardous waste inflow into the sanitary landfill, and for improving the awareness of the population. New technical suggestions should be introduced by the University, as requested by the Mayor of the city at the end of 2017, and the Ph.D. study, in cooperation with various local and international actors, provided support to this need.
The general objective of the work is the introduction of a CE approach useful for allowing new economic advantages by waste valorization. The main goals are:
• Provide an integrated approach for planning sustainable SWM systems in devel- oping big cities of Latin America.
• Demonstrate the importance of the inclusion of the informal sector in the formal SWM system for improving the recycling activities.
• Draft an international cooperation project for introducing new appropriate tech- nologies and sensitivity campaigns for boosting CE.
These three topics were investigated and introduced by the aid of management tools and field studies, supported by an international cooperation network that allows collecting data, implementing direct analysis and field inspections and introducing direct management plans.
1.3 Local and International stakeholders: the cooperation network
The process of International Cooperation started in 2016 with a master degree the- sis in environmental engineering. University agreements were signed by two Italian Universities (University of Trento – Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechan- ical Engineering; University of Insubria - Department of Theoretical and Applied Sci- ence) and a Bolivian one (Universidad Mayor de San Andrés – Department of chemical and environmental engineering), in order to develop researches about environmental themes [8].
The subscription of the first agreement occurred in September 2015 by the Univer- sity of Trento for allowing the first field work about SWM, developed from February to May 2016. Thanks to the good implementation of the study, the Ph.D. research in- troduced in this thesis led to implementing a second agreement (with University of Insubria) and the work of other three students about wastewater treatment, rain wa- ter harvesting and SWM. In particular, the third thesis started at the end of 2018, with a field analysis in La Paz from February to May 2019, and allows supporting the research of the Ph.D. with the analysis of a SC system within the University and the implementation of a study with geographic information systems (GIS).
The local Universities of La Paz were interested in introducing new relations with European Universities, since, over the last years, international NGOs were involved in local development activities and projects for improving environmental sustainabil- ity. Moreover, the University of Trento is organized for implementing international cooperation agreements due to a dedicated master degree in environmental engineer- ing for international cooperation. As a result, the international cooperation between scholars of European countries has been viewed as an opportunity for improving the network among the municipal authorities and the NGOs that are operating within the country, and in the city of La Paz. The objective was the introduction of new projects for sustainable development.
Local and Italian Universities started a strong connection thanks to the Ms degree and the Ph.D., allowing the implementation of a field work in La Paz (totally fifteen months) for collecting data and enforcing the cooperation network. Therefore, the actors involved within the international cooperation network cooperates since four years. The Ph.D. thesis covers such period, exploring the SWM improvements intro- duced within the years and implementing theoretical studies.
The inclusion of the university allows building a report about the current SWM practices of the city, providing suitable information for introducing recycling compa- nies and management tools useful for planning future activities. The work has been developed thanks to the aid of NGOs involved in the SWM of La Paz. In particular, a local NGO (Swisscontat) has been involved during all the field work for its specific knowledge about La Paz SWM and for the interest in introducing new recycling poli- cies. Swisscontact also provided reliable studies about local issues and the activity of the informal recycling sector. Another Italian NGOs, COOPI - Cooperazione Inter- nazionale, was involved for drafting two international cooperation projects wrote in cooperation with the universities and the municipal autonomous government of La Paz (GAMLP). In particular, the projects represent the final stage of the Ph.D. research, since it is the implementation of the whole research introduced during the four years.
For supporting the Ph.D. research in La Paz, an important role is played by The
Rotary international, since provided the economic support to the Ph.D. for spending one year in Bolivia, continuing the implementation of the project, and involving other stakeholders into the study.
The network implemented with the NGOs and the Universities, the preliminary knowledge of the context and the field work, allowed working in direct contact with the GAMLP. The local Government provided the information which were not accessible and confirm some hypothesis that were made. Moreover, it is the actor constantly involved and informed about the results obtained by the studies and the beneficiary of the research and of the project introduced. As a result, these dealings led to start an integrated and multi-stakeholder cooperation for the development of programs about SWM. The international network is schematically reported in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: International cooperation Network of the research.
The university has a central role in developing new researches, holding the con- tacts with the local government, private companies, NGOs, citizens and mass media.
The stakeholder involvement, with a preliminary study of documents and past studies, allowed understanding difficulties, threats and opportunities in La Paz SWM system, finally drafting the international cooperation project.
In conclusion, University of Insubria, through the Ph.D. research, keeps the stake- holders involved in the project. In particular, University of Trento provided the stu- dents interested in implementing their thesis in La Paz; the NGOs supported the re- search providing information and searching for financial support; the local University (Universidad Mayor de San Andrés) supported the work in all its parts, as co-actor in Bolivia, through the expertise in SWM and the availability of research laboratories;
finally the local Government, constantly informed about the advances of the work, and SIREMU (Sistema de regulación municipal), as public actor that works in the sanitary landfill and within the environmental monitoring system of the city.
1.4 Overview and structure of the thesis
The international cooperation network allows implementing the research for introduc- ing CE plans in the city. Figure 1.3 reports the scheme of the theoretical assessment implemented for analyzing the SWM system of La Paz and the sanitary landfill man- agement. The Figure allows explaining the theory followed for implementing the Ph.D.
The approach is composed of three main parts:
• Preliminary assessment
• Advanced assessment and researches implemented during the Ph.D. study
• Impacts of the international cooperation projects started thanks to the Ph.D. re- search
In the first part, the preliminary assessment is introduced for evaluating the SWM current scenario of La Paz. For supporting the analysis, the wasteaware benchmark indicator (WBI) and the waste flow analysis (WFA) were implemented. These meth- ods are suggested by the International solid waste association (ISWA) and the United Nation Development Program (UNDP) for assessing the SWM of big cities in different income countries. These methods were implemented in many cities worldwide [9], so the case of La Paz can be compared with others. The first field work in La Paz, where the WBI and WFA were implemented, took place in 2016. Therefore, the first analysis and description of the study area is of that year. The analysis is reported within the second Chapter of the thesis, after a narrative literature review about the SWM issues typical of developing countries, in order to compare the results obtained in La Paz with other contexts worldwide. Then, the improvement of the MSWM system during the years and the comparison with other case studies published in 2018 are presented.
The second part of Figure 3 reports the core of the Ph.D. study and the main ac- tivities implemented during the three years. In red is reported the main issue that should be solved for the case of La Paz: the management of the sanitary landfill. This represent the main theme that moves the research according to local needs.
The first part of the assessment, after the preliminary study, is the implementation of a multi criteria decision analysis (MCDA) of future management scenarios. This study is reported within the third Chapter of the dissertation, after the assessment of the main waste collection and treatment technologies suited for developing cities and the suggestions of a theoretical CE model for developing cities. This represents the preliminary study for introducing the integrated analysis of the context. The collection and treatment scenarios are then deeply analyzed within the next steps of the research.
Chapter four reported the main analysis introduced within the research. In par- ticular, a social survey was implemented in the city for assessing the social recycling behavior for understanding how the informal recycling sector can be introduced within the formal SWM system. A life cycle assessment (LCA) about the scenarios introduced in Chapter three was implemented for assessing the environmental impacts avoided due to recycling and the inclusion of the informal recycling sector. Moreover, a spa- cial analysis for assessing how the MSW management (MSWM) scenarios can be in- troduced in the city were also assessed by the use of GIS. Therefore, an integrated analysis was introduced, assessing the social behavior, environmental impacts and the geographical feasibility of all the scenarios. Finally, a pilot project of SC was imple- mented within the University (UMSA), where the quantities selected were assessed
and where the opinion and knowledge of the students were also analyzed. This experi- ence was of interest since represents the practical issues detected for implementing a SC system in public areas (starting from zero).
At the end of chapter four, the analysis of the HWM system of the city was imple- mented. It has been introduced by the implementation of new benchmark indicators implemented in this research. The indicators were implemented for detecting main is- sues and weakness of the HWM system of La Paz, in order to improve the quality of the collection and final disposal system. Finally, the assessment of the informal recycling system was introduced in Figure 1.3 although it has not been implemented thoroughly.
Its analysis in introduced in the whole research by integrated approaches, participat- ing in activities for their inclusion. Moreover, it is the main topic of the second project submitted to the EC.
Figure 1.3: Overview and scheme of the research: topics and tools for improving the SWM system of La Paz.
In the last Chapter of the thesis, the draft of the two international cooperation projects is introduced. The projects are direct consequence of the research imple- mented. The methods used during the Ph.D., such as social surveys, LCA, the imple- mentation of SC plans, the activities for including the informal sector, as well as the seminars and conferences, were used for improving the selective collection system of the city, also concerning the management of C&D waste. This chapter describes the third objective of the research: Draft an international cooperation project for intro- ducing new appropriate technologies and sensitivity campaigns for boosting CE. In particular, the first project submitted to the AICS was submitted for boosting recy-
cling, material recovery, research and information, while the second for including the informal sector and the population in the SWM system and for introducing innovative solutions and private companies.
The sections introduced within the chapters were mostly published in scientific pa- pers or presented in international conferences. Therefore, the contents were just peer reviewed and were just published or orally presented at international conferences. All the chapters are presented by an introduction section, where the reference of the work published is presented and where the main contents are reported.
The dissertation concludes with the main impacts of the research and the future developments of the studies implemented. In particular, the methods can be used and replicated for other developing cities worldwide, and the results obtained can be an example for the implementation of international cooperation projects in low-middle income cities.
[1] World Bank (2017) Bolivia. The world bank data. Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/country/bolivia [2] Ministry of the Environment and Water (MMAyA), 2011. Solid waste management diagnosis in Bolivia.
Deputy minister of potable water and sanitation, General direction of integrated solid waste management.
[In Spanish]. Available online: http://www.anesapa.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Diagnostico-de-la-Gestion- de-Residuos-Solidos-en-Bolivia-2011.pdf
[3] Ministry of the Environment and Water (MMAyA), 2012. National program about integrated solid waste manage- ment 2011-2015. [In Spanish]. Available online: http://www.mmaya.gob.bo/redcompostaje/files/biblioteca
[4] Swisscontact: Projects, 2017. Waste management. Available online:
http://www.swisscontact.org/es/country/bolivia/proyectos/proyectos-bolivia/project//show/gestion-de-residuos-en eco-vecindarios.html, Accessed: January 2017.
[5] Wilson, D.C., Rodic, L., Modak, P., Soos, R., Carpintero, A., Velis., K., Iyer, M., Simonett, O., 2015. The global waste management outlook. Report. United Nations Environmental Programme, UNEP.
[6] Ferronato, N., Torretta, V., Ragazzi, M., and Rada, E. C. (2017). Waste mismanagement in developing countries:
A case study of environmental contamination. UPB Sci. Bull, 79, 185-196.
[7] I.N.E. (2012) Características de Población y Vivienda. Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda, Bolivia. 10.
[8] Ferronato, N., Bezzi, M., Zortea, M., Torretta, V., and Ragazzi, M. (2016). An interdisciplinary approach for introducing sustainable integrated solid waste management system in developing countries: The case of La Paz (Bolivia). Procedia Environ. Sci. Eng. Manag, 3, 71-81.
[9] Wilson, D. C., Rodic, L., Cowing, M. J., Velis, C. A., Whiteman, A. D., Scheinberg, A., ... & Oelz, B. (2015).
‘Wasteaware’benchmark indicators for integrated sustainable waste management in cities. Waste Management, 35, 329-342.
SWM in developing countries: the case of La Paz (Bolivia)
- The benefit of generating growth and the associated pollution is mainly private while the social (environmental) cost is shared by all - Sauvé S. et al. (Environmental Development, 2016)
Introduction
This Chapter explores the main SWM issues in developing countries and the MSWM of La Paz. It is divided in two section. In the first part, the environmental contamination due to SWM are introduced, focused on developing countries. This assessment is im- plemented trough a literature review of scientific papers, analyzing the management of various solid waste fractions, such as MSW, healthcare waste (HW), C&D waste, used tires and used batteries. The aim of the section is to present the main environmental is- sues typical of developing countries due to solid waste mismanagement. The narrative literature review described in section 2.1 was published in 2019 in the "International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health" [1].
The second section contains the description of the MSWM of La Paz in 2016, with the improvements implemented in 2017 and 2018. The WBI and the WFA were used for presenting the main issues and opportunities for improving the SWM of La Paz. A discussion about the SWM issues and the comparison with other developing countries is reported. The objective of the section is to present the MSWM system of La Paz, the improvements implemented during the years and the pros and cons of the system com- pared with other developing countries, highlighting the difficulties occurred in January 2019, when the sanitary landfill of the city collapsed. The MSWM system studied in 2016, presented in section 2.2, was published in 2018 in the "Waste Management &
Research " journal [2].
2.1 A brief review of current waste management issues in developing countries
The review presented in this section refers to the article ”Waste mismanagement in developing countries: a review of global issues” - International journal of environmen- tal research and public health (Ferronato, N. and Torretta, V. - 2019).
2.1.1 Environmental contamination due to solid waste mismanagement
Solid waste mismanagement is a global issue in terms of environmental contamination, social inclusion, and economic sustainability. Open dumping and open burning are the main practices implemented for waste treatment and disposal, with many environmen- tal and heath impacts. Such unsustainable practices involve every waste fraction, such as MSW, HW, C&D waste, used tires, WEEE and used batteries, each one spreading specific contaminant concentrations in soil, water and air environments. Moreover, these open dump areas are vectors of disease and source of material inflow into wa- ter bodies, which improve the contamination of the seas and oceans, improving the amount of marine litter. Another global impact improved by waste mismanagement is the global warming, affected by the anaerobic degradation of organic fractions dis- posed of in uncontrolled sites. Finally, waste pickers works within these sites for col- lecting recyclable materials that are sold in local markets. Though this informal prac- tice allows decreasing the amounts of waste inflow into water bodies and open dumps, it is also an hazardous activity that improve the health and occupational risks. Such management issues are reviewed in the next sections, highlighting main opportunities and challenges for its solution. The theoretical framework assessed is schematically reported in Figure 2.1, in order to report the logic involved in this introduction.
MSW open dumping
In developing countries, the management of solid waste is worsened by unsustainable practices that improve the environmental contamination and the spread of diseases.
In particular, the open dumping in uncontrolled sites, open burning of waste fractions and the mismanagement of the leachate produced in final disposal sites, are the main issues detectable [3]. The situation is worsened in slum areas with additional prob- lems of high density population, traffic, air and water pollution. Uncontrolled disposal in open spaces near water bodies are issues widespread in these contexts, which cor- responds to a public health problem [4]. Concerning open air final disposal, the main environmental impacts detectable are:
• visual impacts,
• air contamination, odors and GHG,
• vectors of diseases,
• surface water and groundwater pollution,
