Measurement of nuclear spin by the method of molecular beams
The nuclear spin of sodium Physical Review 46 (1934): 707–712 I.I. Rabi, V.W. Cohen
Nuclear Induction.
Physical Review 69 (1946): 127 F. Bloch, W.W. Hansen, M.E. Packard
Resonance absorption by nuclear magnetic moments in a solid.
Physical Review 69 (1946): 37–38 E.M. Purcell, H.C. Torrey, R.V. Pound
Tumor detection by nuclear magnetic resonance.
Science 171 (1971): 1151–1153 R.V. Damadian
Image Foundation by induced local interactions:
Example employing nuclear magnetic resonance.
Nature 242 (1973): 190–191 P.C. Lauterbur
Planar spin imaging by NMR
J. Phys. C: Solid State Phys. 9 No 15 (1976): L409–L412 P. Mansfield, A.A. Maudsley
Medical Imaging by NMR.
Brit. Jour. Radiol. 50 (1977): 188–194 P. Mansfield, A.A. Maudsley
Human whole body line scan imaging by NMR.
Brit. Jour. Radiol. 51 (1978): 921–922
P. Mansfield, I.L. Pykett, P.G. Morris, R.E. Coupland
NMR imaging of the brain in multiple sclerosis.
Lancet ii (1981): 1063–1066 I.R. Young, A.S. Hall, C.A. Pallis et al.
MRI: Clinical use of the inversion recovery sequence.
J Computer Assisted Tomography 9 (1985): 659–675 G.M. Bydder, I.R. Young
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2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
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Introduction
Magnetic resonance imaging is a relatively new radiological technique. The mag- netic properties of nuclei, which form the basis of MRI, were first measured by Isidor Rabi in the 1930s. Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell independently discovered nuclear magnetic resonance in 1946. All these three pioneers went on to receive the Nobel Prize for physics, Rabi in 1944 and Bloch and Purcell in 1952.
In 1973 Paul Lauterbur, who was working at the State University of New York at Stony Brook, discovered that it was possible to make two-dimensional images of a sample by adding a gradient to the magnetic field. The paper was published on 16 March 1973 in Nature and was titled ‘Image formation by induced local interaction examples employing magnetic resonance’. Lauterbur, professor of chemistry, named this new technique zeugmatography (from the Greek zeugmo, meaning yoke or a joining together). This experiment enabled the single dimension of NMR spectroscopy to move into the spatial orientation, which is the basis of MRI.
Dr Raymond Damadian discovered the basis for using magnetic resonance imag- ing as a tool for medical diagnosis. He found that different kinds of animal tissue emitted different signals, which varied in length, and that cancerous tissues emit- ted signals that lasted longer than those from non-cancerous tissues. He filed a patent for this entitled ‘An apparatus and method for detecting cancer in tissue’, which was granted in 1974 and this was the world’s first patent issued in the field of MRI. By 1977 Dr Damadian had completed construction of the first whole-body MRI scanner.
In 1974 in vivo NMR spectroscopy was introduced in Oxford under the pio- neers George K. Radda and Rex E. Richards. Other members of this research team included Hoult and Gadian, who carried out important early work on MRI spec- troscopy.
In 1975 Peter Mansfield and Andrew Maudsley from Nottingham proposed a line technique, which in 1977 led to the first image of in vivo human anatomy, a cross section through a finger. The following year Mansfield presented his first image through the abdomen. In 1977 the Nottingham team, including Brian Worthington, succeeded in producing an image of a wrist. This was followed by more human thoracic and abdominal images and by 1978 Hugh Clow and Ian R.
Young, working at EMI, reported the first transverse NMR image through the hu- man head. By 1980 William Moore and his colleagues had presented first coronal and sagittal images through the human head. More pioneering research in Britain was conducted at the University of Aberdeen under the group of John Mallard.
They developed the spin warp technique. Their team published the first image through the body of a mouse in 1974. Peter Mansfield further developed the use of gradients in the magnetic field. He was a pioneer in the fast imaging techniques such as echo planar imaging. This was introduced in the 1980’s. The first commer- cial cryogenic magnet in Europe was installed in Manchester (Isherwood and Pullan). In the 1980s fast imaging techniques were developed by Jurgen Hennig from the University of Freiburg, who introduced RARE (rapid acquisition and re- laxation enhancement) imaging in 1986. This is now better known as fast or turbo spin echo imaging. Gradient echo sequences were introduced by Haase and col- leagues from the Max Planck Institute in Gottingen. Roger Ordridge from Mansfield’s group in Nottingham presented the first movie in 1981. In 1984 Dennis H. Carr from the Hammersmith Hospital MRI group and Wolfgang Schorner from Berlin published the first images using the intravenous MRI contrast agent, gadolinium DTPA dimeglumine, in man. Magnetic resonance imaging has result- ed in the award of two Nobel Prizes in chemistry. In 1991 Richard Ernst from Switzerland was awarded the Nobel Prize for his contributions to the development of the use of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In 2002 Kurt Wuthrich
from Switzerland also was awarded the Nobel Prize for the development of NMR spectroscopy for determination of three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules. In 2003 Dr Lauterbur and Dr Mansfield were awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine for their pioneering researches. Clinical studies using this new technique proliferated throughout the 1980s and now MRI is used in the investiga- tion of neurological, and musculo-skeletal disorders as well in cancer. New se- quences continued to be discovered, including the inversion recovery sequences described by Bydder and Young. Today MRI has progressed such that functional imaging is possible, allowing both anatomical and physiological information to be obtained in patients. The technique of diffusion-weighted imaging today allows more accurate assessment of patients with strokes, as do techniques involving per- fusion imaging. Technological innovations in magnet design include open mag- nets which enable interventional procedures to be conducted under MRI imaging guidance
References
Rabi I, Cohen VW (1933) The nuclear spin of sodium Physical Review 43: 582
Rabi I, Cohen VW (1934) Measurement of nuclear spin by the method of molecular beams:
The nuclear spin of sodium Physical Review 46: 707-712 The Physical Review Bloch F, Hansen WW, Packard ME (1946) Nuclear Induction. Physical Review. 69: 127-129 Purcell EM, Torrey HC, Pound RV (1946) resonance absorption by nuclear magnetic mo-
ments in a solid. Physical Review 69: 37-38
Ernst RR, Anderson WA (1966) Anwendung von Fourier-Transformation Spektroskopie zur Magnetresonanz, Polwender Sci. Instrum. 37: 93
Hutchison JMS, Mallard JR, Goll CC (1974) In vivo imaging of body structures using proton resonance. Proc 18thAmpere Congress (Ed. PS Allen, ER Andre and CA Bates) pp 283- 284, University of Nottingham.
This is one of the first descriptions of a relaxation time image showing pathology (using a whole mouse). The colour coded image is illustrated in “In vivo NMR imaging in medicine”
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London 1980 pp 519-533, plate 1.
Edelstein WA, Hutchison JMS, Johnson G, Redpath TW (1980) Spin Warp NMR imaging and its application to whole body imaging, Physics Med. Biol. 25: pp 751-756
An important paper addressed by all the major manufacturers.
Smith FW, Mallard JR, Hutchison JMS et al. (1981) Clinical application of nuclear magnetic resonance. Lancet I: pp 78-79
One of the earliest clinical papers dealing with body images from the Aberdeen group Young IR, Brul M, Clarke GJ et al. (1981) Magnetic properties of hydrogen: Imaging the pos-
terior fossa. AJR 187: pp 895-901
This paper provides the reasons why MR was considered superior to CT in posterior fossa imag- ing.
Mansfield P, Blamire AM, Coxon R et al. (1990) Snapshot echo-planar imaging methods:
current trends and future perspectives Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A, 333: pp 495-506 Worthington BS, Firth JL, Morris GK et al. (1990) The clinical potential of ultra-high-speed
echo-planar imaging Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A 333: pp 507-514
These two papers are really review papers but provide all the references to Mansfield’s work on echo-planar imaging for which in part he was awarded the Nobel prize and Worthington elect- ed FRS
Hoult DI, Busby SJW, Gadian DG et al. (1974) Observation of tissue metabolites using 31 p nuclear magnetic resonance. Nature 252: pp 285-287
This paper demonstrated that high resolution spectra, particularly from 31p could be obtained from intact tissue samples.
Haase A, Frahm JM, Matthaei D, Haenicke W, Merboldt KD (1986) FLASH imaging. Rapid NMR imaging using low flip angle pulses. J Magn Resonance 67: 93-102
Early description of gradient echo imaging
Magnetic Resonance Imaging 71
Hennig J, Friedburg H, Stroebel B (1986) Rapid non-tomographic approach to MR myelog- raphy without contrast agents. JCAT 10: 375-378
Early description of what is now known as turbo-spin echo sequence
Young IR, Hall AS, Pallis CA, Legg NJ, Bydder GM, Steiner RE (1981) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the brain in multiple sclerosis Lancet ii: 1063-6
Early description of mri in the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis
Schenk JF, Jolesz FA, Roemer PB, Cline HE, Lorensen WE, Kikinis R et al. (1995) Superconducting open – configuration MR imaging system for image guided therapy.
Radiology 195: 805-814
First description of open superconducting mri system
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Measurement of nuclear spin by the method of molecular beams
Isidor Isaac Rabi
(1898–1988)Isidor Isaac Rabi was born in Raymanov, Austria, on 29 July 1898, the son of David Rabi and Janet Teig. He was brought to the United States by his family, in 1899, and his early education was in New York City (Manhattan and Brooklyn). In 1919 he graduated Bachelor of Chemistry at Cornell University (New York). After three years in non-scientific jobs, he started postgraduate studies in physics at Cornell in 1921, which he later continued at Columbia University. In 1927 he received his PhD degree for work on the magnetic properties of crystals. Aided by fellowships, he spent two years in Europe, working at different times with Sommerfeld, Bohr, Pauli, Stern, and Heisenberg. On his return in 1929 he was appointed lecturer in Theoretical Physics at Columbia University, and after promotion through the var- ious grades became professor in 1937.
In 1940 he was granted leave from Columbia to work as Associate Director of the Radiation Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology on the de- velopment of radar and the atomic bomb. In 1945 he returned to Columbia as ex- ecutive officer of the Physics Department. In this capacity he was also concerned with the Brookhaven National Laboratory for Atomic Research, Long Island, an organization devoted to research into the peaceful uses of atomic energy.
His early work was concerned with the magnetic properties of crystals. In 1930 he began studying the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei, developing Stern’s molecular beam method to great precision as a tool for measuring these proper- ties. His apparatus was based on the production of ordinary electromagnetic os- cillations of the same frequency as that of the Larmor precession of atomic sys- tems in a magnetic field. By an ingenious application of the resonance principle he succeeded in detecting and measuring single states of rotation of atoms and mole- cules and in determining the mechanical and magnetic moments of the nuclei.
Prof. Rabi published his most important papers in The Physical Review, of which he was an Associate Editor for two periods. In 1939 he received the Prize of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and in 1942 the Elliott Cresson Medal of the Franklin Institute. He was awarded the Medal for Merit, the highest civilian award in World War II, in 1948, the King’s Medal for Service in the Cause of Freedom the same year, and is an Officer of the Legion of Honour.
He was an honorary DSc of Princeton, Harvard, and Birmingham universities.
He was a Fellow of the American Physical Society (its President in 1950) and a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1944 he was awarded a Nobel Prize in physics.
In 1959 he was appointed a member of the Board of Governors of the Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovoth, Israel. He held foreign memberships of the Japanese and Brazilian Academies, and was a member of the General Advisory Committee to the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency and of the United States National Commission for UNESCO. At the International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy (Geneva, 1955) he was the United States delegate and Vice-President. He was also a member of the Science Advisory Committee of the International Atomic Energy Agency.
2.1
Dr. Rabi married Helen Newmark in 1926. They had two daughters. His recre- ations were travel, walking, and the theatre. Isidor Isaac Rabi died in 1988.
From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1942–1962, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam
V.W. Cohen
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Felix Bloch
(1905–1983)Felix Bloch was born in Zurich, Switzerland, on 23 October 1905, the son of Gustav Bloch and Agnes Bloch (née Mayer). From 1912 to 1918 he attended the public pri- mary school and subsequently the “Gymnasium” of the Canton of Zurich, which he left in the fall of 1924 after having passed the “Matura”, i.e. the final examina- tion which entitled him to attend an institution of higher learning.
Planning originally to become an engineer, he entered directly the Federal Institute of Technology (Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule) in Zurich. After one year’s study of engineering he decided instead to study physics, and changed therefore to the Division of Mathematics and Physics at the same institution.
During the following two years he attended, among others, courses given by Debye, Scherrer and Weyl, as well as Schrödinger, who taught at the same time at the University of Zurich and through whom he became acquainted, toward the end of this period, with the new wave mechanics. Bloch’s interests had by that time turned toward theoretical physics. After Schrödinger left Zurich in the fall of 1927 Bloch continued his studies with Heisenberg at the University of Leipzig, where he received his degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the summer of 1928 with a disserta- tion dealing with the quantum mechanics of electrons in crystals and developing the theory of metallic conduction. Various assistantships and fellowships, held in the following years, gave him the opportunity to work with Pauli, Kramers, Heisenberg, Bohr, and Fermi and led to further theoretical studies of the solid state as well as of the stopping power of charged particles.
Upon Hitler’s ascent to power, Bloch left Germany in the spring of 1933, and a year later he accepted a position which was offered to him at Stanford University.
The new environment in which he found himself in the United States helped to- ward the maturing of the wish he had had for some time to undertake also exper- imental research. Working with a very simple neutron source, it occurred to him that a direct proof for the magnetic moment of the free neutrons could be ob- tained through the observation of scattering in iron. In 1936, he published a paper in which the details of the phenomenon were worked out and in which it was pointed out that it would lead to the production and observation of polarized neu- tron beams. The further development of these ideas led him in 1939 to an experi- ment, carried out in collaboration with L.W. Alvarez at the Berkeley cyclotron, in which the magnetic moment of the neutron was determined with an accuracy of about 1%.
During the war years Dr. Bloch was also engaged in the early stages of the work on atomic energy at Stanford University and Los Alamos and later in counter- measures against radar at Harvard University. Through this latter work he became acquainted with the modern developments of electronics which, toward the end of the war, suggested to him, in conjunction with his earlier work on the magnetic moment of the neutron, a new approach toward the investigation of nuclear mo- ments.
These investigations were begun immediately after his return to Stanford in the fall of 1945 and resulted shortly afterward in collaboration with W.W. Hansen and M.E. Packard in the new method of nuclear induction, a purely electromagnetic procedure for the study of nuclear moments in solids, liquids, or gases. A few
2.2 Nuclear Induction
weeks after the first successful experiments he received the news of the same dis- covery having been made independently and simultaneously by E.M. Purcell and his collaborators at Harvard. Most of Bloch’s work in the subsequent years was de- voted to investigations with the use of this new method. In particular, he was able, by combining it with the essential elements of his earlier work on the magnetic moment of the neutron, to remeasure this important quantity with great accuracy in collaboration with D. Nicodemus and H.H. Staub (1948). In 1954, Bloch took a leave of absence to serve for one year as the first Director General of CERN in Geneva. After his return to Stanford University he continued his investigations on nuclear magnetism, particularly in regard to the theory of relaxation.
In 1961, he received an endowed Chair by his appointment as Max Stein Professor of Physics at Stanford University. In 1952 he shared the nobel prize in physics with Purcell. Prof. Bloch married in 1940 Dr. Lore Misch, a refugee from Germany and herself a physicist. Felix Bloch died in 1983.
From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1942–1962, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amster- dam
W.W. Hansen
M.E. Packard
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Edward M. Purcell
(1912–1997)Edward Mills Purcell was born in Taylorville, Illinois, USA, on 30 August 1912. His parents, Edward A. Purcell and Mary Elizabeth Mills, were both natives of Illinois.
He was educated in the public schools in Taylorville and in Mattoon, Illinois, and in 1929 entered Purdue University in Indiana. He graduated from Purdue in elec- trical engineering in 1933.
His interest had already turned to physics, and through the kindness of Professor K. Lark-Horovitz he was able, while an undergraduate, to take part in experimental research in electron diffraction. As an Exchange Student of the Institute of International Education, he spent one year at the Technische Hochschule, Karlsruhe, Germany, where he studied under Professor W. Weizel. He returned to the United States in 1934 to enter Harvard University, where he received the Ph.D. degree in 1938. After serving two years as instructor in physics at Harvard, he joined the Radiation Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which was organized in 1940 for military research and development of microwave radar. He became Head of the Fundamental Developments Group in the Radiation Laboratory, which was concerned with the exploration of new frequency bands and the development of new microwave techniques. This experience turned out to be very valuable. Perhaps equally influential in his subsequent scientific work was the association at this time with a number of physicists, among them I.I. Rabi, with a continuing interest in the study of molecular and nuclear properties by radio methods.
The discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance absorption was made just after the end of the war, and at about that time Purcell returned to Harvard as Associate Professor of Physics. He became Professor of Physics in 1949 and subsequently Gerhard Gade University Professor. He continued to work in the field of nuclear magnetism, with particular interest in relaxation phenomena, related problems of molecular structure, measurement of atomic constants, and nuclear magnetic be- havior at low temperatures. He made some contributions to the subject of radioas- tronomy.
He was a Fellow of the American Physical Society, a member of the National Academy of Sciences, of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and of the President’s Science Advisory Committee under President Eisenhower from 1957- 1960 and under President Kennedy as from 1960. In 1952 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics with Felix Bloch.
In 1937, Purcell married Beth C. Busser. They had two sons, Dennis and Frank.
E. M. Purcell died in 1997.
From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1942–1962, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam
H.C. Torrey R.V. Pound
2.3 Resonance absorption by nuclear magnetic moments
in a solid
2.3 Resonance absorption by nuclear magnetic moments in a solid 85
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Raymond V. Damadian
(born 1936)Born in Forest Hills, New York, Damadian attended the Juilliard School of Music for eight years, studying violin. He received his BS in mathematics in 1956 from the University of Wisconsin and an MD degree from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York in 1960. Damadian later served as a fellow in nephrology at Washington University School of Medicine and as a fellow in biophysics at Harvard University, where he completed academic work in physics, physical chemistry, and mathematics. He studied physiological chemistry at the School of Aerospace Medicine in San Antonio, Texas. After serving in the Air Force, Damadian joined the faculty of the State University of New York Downstate Medical Center in 1967. His training in medicine and physics led him to develop a new theory of the living cell, his ion exchanger resin theory. Damadian founded the FONAR Corporation in 1978 and became its president and chairman .
Raymond Damadian invented the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner, which has revolutionized the field of diagnostic medicine. MRI obtains informa- tion through the use of static and dynamic magnetic fields, a method that yields radio signal outputs from the body’s tissue that can be either transformed into images or analyzed to provide the chemical composition of the tissue being exam- ined. His MRI produced images of the interior of the body far more detailed than was possible with X-ray devices such as the CAT scanner. Since the device’s ap- proval in 1984 by the Food and Drug Administration hundreds have been put to use in medical institutions around the world.
Although the technology used in Damadian’s machine – nuclear magnetic res- onance (NMR or MR), where harmless magnetic fields and radio waves cause atoms to emit tiny, detectable radio signals – had existed for 25 years, Damadian was the first to successfully apply the physics of NMR to clinical medicine. In 1971, Damadian demonstrated for the first time that the MR signal could overcome one of medicine’s longstanding deficiencies – the inability of the X-ray to create the contrast needed to see the body’s vital organs. Citing this contrast deficiency in a paper published in Science, Damadian proposed that the profound differences be- tween the decay rate of the MR signal of soft tissues and the decay rate of the MR signal of cancerous tissues had the potential to address this long-standing, critical need in medicine. He proposed the creation of a new body scanner based on the MR signal and on his discovery of the critical differences in the MR signals that existed in the body’s vital tissues. The images of the interior of the human body that resulted from Damadian’s work were far superior in detail to those of existing X-ray devices because the MR could generate the tissue contrast that was missing in X-ray pictures.
As with any groundbreaking invention, Damadian’s MR scanner was met with great skepticism. “What I learned in the process of developing the MR scanner was that criticism is an integral part of the process and always has been,” com- ments Damadian.“The bolder the initiative, the harsher the criticism.”
Damadian, a violin student who left the Juilliard School of Music to pursue a medical education, first became interested in medicine at the age of ten, after wit- nessing his grandmother’s pain and suffering from cancer. He chose medical re- search over clinical practice because he believed that carefully executed experi-
2.4 Tumor detection by nuclear magnetic resonance
ments could result in major medical contributions with the potential to benefit many people. Damadian felt that research would allow him to help many millions of people, rather than the thousands he would be able to beneficially reach in the day-to-day practice of medicine.
Today, Damadian oversees FONAR Corporation, the Melville, NY-based com- pany he formed in 1978 to produce and market his MRI scanner. After twenty- three years in business, FONAR continues to research and develop, manufacture, sell and ship its own MRI scanners.
FONAR’s recent MRI innovations include a full-sized MRI operating room that allows unrestricted 360-degree access to the patient and the Stand-Up MRITM– the only scanner to allow MRI patients to simply walk in and be scanned while standing. The revolutionary design of the Stand-Up MRITMallows all parts of the body to be scanned in the weight-bearing position.
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2.4 Tumor detection by nuclear magnetic resonance 91
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Paul C. Lauterbur
(born 1929)A native of Sidney, Ohio, Paul C. Lauterbur was born on 6 May 1929. He received the BS degree in chemistry from Case Institute of Technology in 1951. Between 1951 and 1953, he worked as a Research Associate at the Mellon Institute, where he was involved in the studies of organosilicon chemistry, vulcanizing systems and reinforcing fillers of silicone elastomers. He served in the Army Chemical Center Laboratories between 1953 and 1955, where he worked on the biological testing of chemical warfare agents and studies on aerosols. While he was at the Army Chemical Center, he also set up the nuclear magnetic resonance laboratory and began research on NMR spectroscopy. After his military service, he returned to the Mellon Institute and continued his graduate education, receiving the Ph.D. de- gree in chemistry from the University of Pittsburgh in 1962. From 1963 to 1984, he was on the faculty of the State University of New York at Stony Brook, where he served as a Professor in the Departments of Chemistry and Radiology. During this period, Lauterbur worked on NMR spectroscopy and its applications to the stud- ies of the structures of molecules, solutions and solids. He also extended his NMR studies to applications in biochemistry and biophysics when he discovered nu- clear magnetic resonance imaging. In 1984, he was named as University Professor at SUNY Stony Brook until his departure in 1985. Currently, he is a professor at the College of Medicine and in the Department of Chemistry of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and the Director of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Research at the same institution. He also holds the position of Adjunct University Professor at SUNY Stony Brook.
Lauterbur has published more than 110 scientific articles in various aspects of NMR and its applications. His work at SUNY Stony Brook has laid the foundations for the entire field of nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, which is also known as nuclear magnetic resonance zeugmatography. From his work came a new medical diagnostic instrument and his discovery provided a new field of endeavor for physicists, engineers and clinicians. The discovery of NMR imaging has impacted the medical instrumentation industry positively by opening new horizons.
Recognition of Lauterbur’s outstanding achievements includes an honorary PhD from the University of Liege, Belgium and numerous awards including the Gold Medal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, the Michelson- Morley Award, American Physical Society Prize in Biological Physics and Harvey Prize in Science and Technology, the national medal of science (USA) and the gold medal of the Radiological Society of North America in 1987 and the gold medal of the European Congress of Radiology in 1999. He was awarded the IEEE Medal of Honor in 1987,“For the discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance imaging.” In 2003 Lauterbur was bestowed with the Nobel Prize in Medicine together with his British colleague Sir Peter Mansfield.
2.5 Image Foundation by induced local interactions:
Example employing nuclear magnetic resonance
2.5 Image Foundation by induced local interactions 95
Sir Peter Mansfield
(born 1933)Sir Peter Mansfield was born on 9 October 1933 in London, Great Britain. His pri- mary education was spent partly in Devon during the Second World War evacua- tion of London. His initial secondary school was Peckham Central, but after the 1948 education act, all the boys were transferred from that school to William Penn School, Choumert Road, Peckham. William Penn School was later transferred to the site on Red Post Hill where The Charter School now stands. He was told by a careers teacher that science wasn’t for him. He then had to leave school at 15.
Before joining the army Mansfield worked in a print shop and the took A-levels at night school. In 1959 he gained a BSc from Queen Mary College, University of London and three years later he attained his PhD in physics from the University of London. Between 1962–64 he became Research Associate at the Department of Physics, University of Illinois and in 1964 Lecturer at the Department of Physics, University of Nottingham. In 1979 Sir Peter Mansfield was appointed Professor of physics at the Department of Physics, University of Nottingham.
Sir Peter Mansfield was awarded the Gold Medal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine for pioneering scientific contributions to biology and medicine (1983); Fellow of the Royal Society (1987); the Silvanus Thompson Medal by the British Institute of Radiology (1988); jointly with Paul Lauterbur the International Society of Magnetic Resonance (ISMAR) prize in recognition of
“contributions to the fundamentals of NMR and its applications, especially NMR imaging” (1992); the Gold Medal of the European Congress of Radiology and the European Association of Radiology (1995); the Nobel Prize for Medicine together with Paul Lauterbur (2003).
His interests outside physics are languages, flying – he holds a private pilot’s li- cence for both airplanes and helicopters – and reading.
Andrew A. Maudsley
(born 1952)Andrew A. Maudsley was born June 1, 1952 in Nairobi, Kenya. He completed a PhD in physics under the direction of Sir Peter Mansfield in 1976. His PhD work includ- ed the very early development of MRI and resulted in the first MR image from the human body, which was of his finger and was published in 1977. Following his PhD work he did a postdoctoral fellowship with Professor Richard Ernst, working in the area of heteronuclear two-dimensional spectroscopy. In 1979, Dr. Maudsley was appointed to a faculty position in the department of radiology at Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center, New York, where he worked on the construction of the first 1.5-T superconducting magnet system located in a clinical setting. Over the next several years Dr. Maudsley and colleagues published several early papers in the area of technique developments for MRI and in vivo spectroscopy, including the development of spectroscopic imaging methods and the first sodium and phosphorus imaging in animals and humans.
In 1987, Dr. Maudsley joined the faculty at the University of California, San Francisco, where he continued development of MR spectroscopy methods for ex-
2.6 Planar spin imaging by NMR
amination of brain diseases in humans, including the areas of stroke, epilepsy, and traumatic brain injury. This work is now being continued at the University of Miami, where he moved in 2002. In recent years he has concentrated on the devel- opment and clinical applications of MR spectroscopic imaging, and is currently directing a project to implement improved data processing methods for MRI.
Dr. Maudsley’s publications include 94 papers, 14 book chapters, and 8 patents.
He has received several grants and awards from the National Institutes of Health, is a Fellow of the International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine (1999) and is currently serving on the Medical Imaging study section of the National Institutes of Health.
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Sir Peter Mansfield
(born 1933) see Chapter 2.6 on page 96.Andrew A. Maudsley
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Sir Peter Mansfield
(born 1933) see Chapter 2.6 on page 96.I.L. Pykett P.G. Morris R.E. Coupland
2.8 Human whole body line scan imaging by NMR
2.8 Human whole body line scan imaging by NMR 113
Ian Robert Young
(born 1932)Ian Robert Young was born on 11 January 1932. He was educated at Sedbergh School in Yorkshire and proceeded to qualify with a BSc and a PhD from Aberdeen University in Scotland. He is a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical Engineers. From 1976 to 1981 Ian Young worked for EMI Ltd. and from 1981 to 1997 he worked for GEC plc. It was while he was at EMI that his fruitful collaboration with Graeme Bydder started, which led to many important technical and clinical developments in MRI in the UK. From 1986 onwards he was a visiting professor of radiology at the Royal Postgraduate Medical School at the Hammersmith Hospital in London. In 1985 he was awarded an OBE. In 1989 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1990 he was made an honorary FRCR. In 1992 he was awarded an honorary DSc from Aberdeen University and in 1995 he was made an honorary member of the American Society of Neuroradiologists. In addition to having published over 100 papers on topics related to magnetic resonance imag- ing, he also is the owner of 50 separate patents.
A.S. Hall C.A. Pallis
2.9 NMR imaging of the brain in multiple sclerosis
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Graeme M. Bydder
(born 1944)Professor Graeme M Bydder was born on 1 May 1944 in New Zealand. After early education in schools in New Zealand he qualified from the University of Otago Medical School in Dunedin in 1969. After early jobs in Otago Medical School, Graeme Bydder travelled to London, where he worked at the Clinical Research Centre in Northwick Park Hospital as an MRC Research Fellow. In 1981 he moved to the Hammersmith Hospital, where he spent over 20 years, becoming a Professor of Diagnostic Radiology in 1989. In 2003 he moved to the University of California in San Diego as a Professor of Radiology. At the Hammersmith Hospital, in the Robert Steiner MRI Unit, Professor Bydder was instrumental in much of the early pioneering clinical research into this technology. He is the author of many impor- tant clinical papers on magnetic resonance imaging and has been the recipient of many honours, including the gold medal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine in 1997 and the gold medal of the Royal College of Radiologists UK 2001.
Ian Robert Young
(born 1932) see Chapter 2.9 on page 114.2.10 MRI: Clinical use of the inversion recovery sequence
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