3.1 Terms of address

3

Now that the elements that should be considered in transposing the meaning and functions of television dialogue into subtitles have been described, this chapter briefly describes several other difficulties that the translation of terms of address from English to Italian presents, before showing how I dealt with these problems in Upstairs downstairs.

3.1 Terms of address

Braun (1988) describes address as a speaker’s linguistic reference to his/her collocutor(s). As a consequence, forms of address are the words and phrases used for addressing, while the totality of available forms and their interrelation in one language constitute its system of address, a dimension in which cultural norms and values can be reflected.

According to Braun, forms of address can be found in three word classes:

 Pronouns, which usually are second person pronouns (like you and tu), even though other grammatical persons can act as pronouns of address (in Italian lei, for example, which is a third person pronoun).

 Verbs, especially those in which reference to the collocutor is expressed – e.g. by means of inflectional suffixes (cfr. the difference between the Italian amo and ami: the presence of the inflectional suffixes helps the interlocutor understand that they respectively refer to the speaker and his/her collocutor, even without an explicit subject).

 Nouns or adjectives that designate collocutors or refer to them in some other way. This class comprises various types of means of address:

names, kinship terms (such as mother, father or uncle), titles (such as

forms which correspond to Mr/Mrs), abstract nouns such as (Your) Excellency, etc.

The choice of which forms of address should be used with a specific interlocutor is guided by the level of formality of the situation and the particular context, and it helps speakers regulate the level of social distance with their interlocutors. Therefore, address as an instrument of describing social relationships involves issues of politeness, perception of common ground and social distance (Norrby/Wide, 2015).

In this respect, a fundamental contribution was Brown and Gilman’s article

“The pronouns of power and solidarity” (1960), which introduced the symbols T and V to designate respectively the simple or intimate pronoun of address and the polite, distant or secondary pronoun of address – a classification especially suitable for languages with a contrast between two pronominal variants, such as Italian. In particular, they examined semantic differences in the pronouns of address in French, German and Italian, and distinguished between two types of relationships: symmetrical, which allow for the use of the mutual T among interlocutors, and asymmetrical, which require at least one of the interlocutor to use V. The recipient of V may differ from the recipient of T in power, age, wealth, birth, sex or profession. Those divergences that imply a difference in power cause V to emerge in one direction of address, while those which are not concerned with power cause V to emerge in both directions. As regards symmetrical relationships, they used the term solidarity to describe them, and argued that the similarities that matter in determining whether two people are ‘solidary’ enough to use the mutual T are those that make for like- mindedness or similar behaviour dispositions (Brown/Gilman, 1960: 4).

Even though extremely important, Brown and Gilman’s approach has been

criticised for making too far-reaching claims based on limited empirical data.

3.2 The address system in English and its translation into Italian subtitles 3.2.1 The English address system

Address in English is not such an obvious phenomenon as it is in other languages, because it involves little or no pronominal address choice (Clyne/Norrby/Warren, 2009; Norrby/Wide, 2015). A closer analysis may in fact highlight that there are two main ways of addressing in English:



pronominally: the pronoun you fulfils the functions of both T and V without being the equivalent of either, and it can be considered the default, neutral address form. Therefore, the English speaker does not have to make a conscious decision before speaking about which pronoun and corresponding verb form to use;



nominally: there is a wide range of nominal forms in English. Intimate forms of address include first names and familiarisers such as mate and dear, while honorific + last name, and title + last name are the most common examples of polite forms of address.

The absence of pronominal differentiation of the T/V type results in heavy reliance on the nominal devices to fill the gap, especially on the contrast between first name/last name and/or honorific.

3.2.2 The Italian address system

The Italian address system, on the other hand, has a completely different nature, and this imbalance has important consequences when it comes to transpose one system into the other, as it happens in the translation of dialogue.

Generally speaking, it can be said that Italian presents a pronominal

dichotomy of the T/V type, even though the picture is in fact more

complicated. The canonical form to refer to the interlocutor in Italian is the singular second person pronoun tu, which represents the T form. However, there are two other pronominal forms that can be used for addressing: the third person singular pronoun lei, and the second person plural pronoun voi (Renzi, 1989). Lei is used either when the interlocutor is a stranger, or when he/she is a known person with whom the speaker has a formal relationship, and it represents the most common V pronoun. More specifically, the variation between tu and lei is regulated by two parameters:

 the difference in status between the interlocutors. Whether one of the people involved in the exchange has a higher status than the other depends on factors such as social standing, age, or a temporary circumstance (e.g. the landlord being addressed by his guests), and they can be in contrast with each other.

 The familiarity between the interlocutors: the more distant they are, the more likely they will use a V pronoun to address each other.

Voi is another pronominal form which expresses distance, but its use is restricted to some areas of central and southern Italy, where it is used with or instead of lei, thus generating a further contrast. In 1938 the fascist regime imposed the mandatory use of voi instead of lei, because the latter was wrongly considered as foreign (Serianni, 1989; Renzi, 1989). This may be one of the reasons that led to the fast decline of the use of voi to express distance in contemporary Italian. It is, however, still very frequent in the translation of works written and/or set in the past, and in audiovisual translation it represents an example of “inerzia” (Renzi, 1989; Pavesi, 1996).

As in English, address in Italian can also be expressed by nominal means,

which combine with pronouns. The most frequent nominal forms of address are

titles (nouns which state profession such as ingegnere or dottore, and the words

signore/signora/signorina), kinship terms (mamma, papà, zio, zia, etc.), and

last names. Another way to address the interlocutor with nominal means is by using a noun phrase and the verb in the 3

person (Renzi, 1989).

Italian can also express reference to the collocutor by means of verbal inflectional suffixes. The use of personal pronouns to refer to the speaker and the interlocutor, in fact, is not mandatory, and they are usually elided, leaving only the verb to give information about the subject and the relationship he/she has with the interlocutor.

The two address systems are therefore quite distant, especially in the pronominal means they employ in addressing. Given that English only has the pronoun you, when trying to transpose one system into the other the Italian translator must first decide the degree of intimacy between the characters in order to adjust the pronouns and the verbs accordingly, and then pay attention each time one of this relationships changes, because it may be necessary to adjust pronouns and verbs again, and also resort to other lexical means to convey the vicinity/distance.

Finally, the specific translation strategies of subtitling – which I briefly described in the previous chapter – must be added to this picture as a further complication. The limited number of characters available, in particular, often forces the translator to omit part of the terms of address which define the relationships between the characters – especially first names and other vocatives – and compensate elsewhere to get the audience to understand anyway.

3.3 An analysis of Upstairs downstairs

The story of Upstairs Downstairs is set at the outbreak of the Second World

War and revolves around the lives of the ‘upstairs’ residents of 165 Eaton Place

and their ‘downstairs’ staff. The first series, in particular – on which the present

work focuses – takes place during the one-year reign of king Edward VIII. Sir Hallam Holland, a young diplomat, moves into the house along with his wife, lady Agnes, in January 1936. They engage former parlourmaid Rose Buck to find them staff as they renovate the house after years of abandonment. As they settle into London life, however, they are soon confronted with problems: lady Agnes’ fiery young sister lady Persephone and her fascination for nationalsocialism, sir Hallam’s overbearing mother, Maud, who moves herself into the house along with her Indian secretary and her pet-monkey, and a young and barely-trained house staff. In addition to these, there is a mystery surrounding sir Hallam’s sister Pamela, who died as an infant, and an unexpected foster-child they feel obliged to maintain, Lotte.

3.3.1 Preliminary considerations

The one that follows is a comment on the translation choices I made while working on Upstairs Downstairs, with particular attention to the terms of address that can be found in the series. The analysis of terms of address, however, occupies only the first part of this section: the second part, in fact, briefly examines other linguistic elements that, together with terms of address, contribute to the expression of politeness in the series.

3.3.2 Notes on the translation

For the purpose of the present analysis I translated the first and the third

episode of the first series of Upstairs downstairs, which are, respectively, the

first and the last of the series. The translation in its entirety can be found in the

Appendix, and it is arranged in three columns: the central column contains the

English original script of the two episodes, while the right-hand column

contains Italian subtitles, arranged as they would appear on the screen. The

left-hand column contains the names of the characters that are involved in the

exchange and some important information on the scene or on the performance

of the dialogues. Unknown or minor characters are referred to either as MAN/WOMAN or with the job they do – e.g. waiter. When a characters is off- screen his/her line and the corresponding subtitle are in italics.

3.4 Terms of address in Upstairs Downstairs 3.4.1 Method of analysis

The analysis of terms of address in Upstairs Downstairs is divided in two parts: the first part focuses on cases of pronominal address and their translations, while in the second part cases of nominal forms of address are examined. Each section analyses both symmetrical and asymmetrical relationships between the characters, and comprises a sample of both ‘upstairs’

and ‘downstairs’ characters.

While translating the dialogues, I defined the type of relationship between the characters (symmetrical or asymmetrical) mainly on the basis of their age, social class and shared experiences, and then decided which corresponding forms of address to use. Another factor that has been taken into consideration is what the characters themselves say about the different relationships they have with each other – e.g. when the cook, Mrs Thackeray, explicitly makes a joke about being only on formal terms with Mr Pritchard, the butler.

3.5 Pronominal forms of address

As it has been pointed out above, a major difficulty in translating from English

to Italian is the fact that English has only one pronoun to express different

types of address, while Italian presents a dichotomy. In Upstairs downstairs, I

decided to use tu as the intimate pronoun of address, and voi as the polite

pronoun of address. The choice of voi instead of the contemporary polite

pronoun lei has been made because of the setting of the series (1936) and its

ties with the particular pronominal habit of the fascist period in Italy. Even though the use of voi in films and series set in the 19

century – or, more in general, in the past – is considered an “inerzia” which ignores the linguistic norms of the time the series or film is set in (Pavesi, 1996), I believe that in this specific case the pronoun voi is actually coherent with the setting, and it reflects a common translation strategy used both in subtitling and in dubbing

.

Trying to cope with the discrepancy between the two languages while at the same time being consistent with the norms of subtitling meant that a translation strategy which relies heavily on Italian inflectional suffixes to compensate for the loss of the most part of the subject pronouns (which can be elided in Italian, as has been explained before) had to be used.

The first examples that will be commented upon concern the relationship between sir Hallam Holland and his wife, lady Agnes, which is a symmetrical one. There are various scenes throughout the whole series that underline how complicity is an essential part of their marriage – which was probably the result of love and not of economical interest – despite the various difficulties they encounter. Therefore, I decided to use the T pronoun in their exchanges. As can be observed by the examples below, however, there are few cases where the subject pronoun is left explicit in the subtitles, while there are many more cases where this does not happen. The type of relationship between sir Hallam and lady Agnes is therefore conveyed by the singular second person verbal suffixes.

1. Agnes

2. Hallam

I'm sorry, Hallam, I had to go back for my flowers.

--- I want to sit and gaze at you each evening.

Perdonami, Hallam,

sono dovuta tornare a prendere i fiori.

--- Voglio sedermi

a guardarti tutte le sere.

1Cfr. the Italian dubbing and subtitles of Downton Abbey (ITV, 2010-2015).

3. Agnes

Hallam

4. Agnes Hallam

5. Hallam

Agnes

Sit, and listen to the wireless and not talk,

because I know you so well we don't have to speak at all.

--- Why didn't you stand up to her?

I was brought up to be polite to strangers.

--- - This is your mother's fault!

- I don't care whose fault it is.

This is our home! And my reputation.

You're the hostess.

I need you to take charge.

--- It's bad enough you knew nothing of your sister's movements

but to relinquish all control of a small child in our care.

I've had other

Sedermi e ascoltare la radio senza parlare,

perché ti conosco così bene che non ne abbiamo bisogno.

--- Perché non l'hai affrontata?

Sono stato educato

a essere cortese con gli sconosciuti.

--- - È colpa di tua madre!

- Non mi interessa di chi è la colpa!

Questa è casa nostra!

E la mia reputazione.

Sei la padrona di casa.

Ho bisogno che tu prenda il comando.

--- È già abbastanza che non sapessi niente dei movimenti di tua sorella,

ma cedere così il controllo

di una bambina sotto la nostra tutela.

Avevo altri pensieri, proprio come te!

preoccupations, Hallam, just like you!

[…]

I can't believe you didn't ask more questions!

That you allowed her to run the entire show!

[…]

Non posso credere

che tu non abbia chiesto nient'altro!

Che tu le abbia permesso di dirigere le danze!

Another example of ‘upstairs’ symmetrical relationship involves sir Hallam and an historical figure, Prince George, the Duke of Kent and brother of the king. They are about the same age, and various elements in the Duke’s speech – such as the fact that he calls sir Hallam old chap, a feature that will be analysed later on – imply that a certain familiarity exists between them.

Therefore, even though the Duke evidently has a higher social status than sir Hallam, I decided to make them use the T pronoun with each other.

More specifically, in examples 6 and 7 the pronoun is explicit in the subtitles, too, and translated as tu, while in examples 8 and 9 the informal treatment is expressed by the singular second person verbal suffixes.

6. Kent

7. Kent

8. Hallam

Old man look after you in his will?

--- I don’t want you to feel that it’s some sort of duty.

--- - You look tired.

Il tuo vecchio

si è occupato di te nel testamento?

--- Non voglio

che tu lo prenda come un dovere.

---

- Sembri stanco.

Kent

9. Kent

Hallam

- Bone tired.

--- I was passing by your door, and I required a cigarette.

You do talk a lot of rot.

- Morto.

--- Passavo di qui,

e volevo una sigaretta.

Dici proprio un sacco di sciocchezze.

A similar ‘downstairs’ case is the relationship between Miss Buck and Mrs Thackeray. These two characters are about the same age, but, differently from the previous example, they also have the same social status. In the first scene they are seen together, moreover, both of them hint at details of each other’s pasts, and from that moment on they are often represented doing things together even when they are off duty. The evidence of an already existing friendship between the two is the main reason why they use T pronouns, despite the fact that they address each other with a title + last name, a nominal form of address which usually expresses distance between the interlocutors.

Examples 10 and 11 show cases where you was rendered in the subtitles with an explicit pronoun, tu (te in those cases where Italian grammar requires this alternative form).

10. Miss Buck Mrs Thack

11. Mrs Thack

- We're all nervous.

- Speak for yourself!

--- You're the one aping your betters.

Making a god of your cast-off silver teapot.

- Siamo tutti nervosi.

- Parla per te!

--- Sei tu che scimmiotti chi è meglio di te,

trattando quella teiera

scartata come se fosse Dio.

Miss Buck

Mrs Thack

That teapot is testament to the fact that I gave the Bellamy family

40 years of impeccable service!

It was a throw-out and you know it.

Either you got it or the dustbin.

Quella teiera testimonia

il fatto che ho dedicato ai Bellamy

40 anni di impeccabile servizio!

Era uno scarto, e lo sai anche tu.

O la prendevi tu, o la pattumiera.

Examples 12 and 13, on the other hand, are a sample of those cases where the pronoun has been elided in Italian and the information about the relationship is expressed by the verbal suffixes.

12. Miss Buck

Mrs Thack

Miss Buck

Do you want this new position or don't you?

I can't be making decisions when I'm all wrung out like this.

Besides, you said the money was no good.

The money's never any good these days.

But there's no-one to

Lo vuoi questo nuovo lavoro, o no?

Non posso prendere decisioni quando sono così a pezzi.

Oltretutto, hai detto

che non pagano abbastanza.

Di questi tempi,

non pagano mai abbastanza.

Ma nessuno può superarti

13. Miss Buck

Mrs Thack

Miss Buck

touch you for society cuisine.

--- I'll be referring to your meringues in a letter of dismissal

if I have to unpick a mess like that again!

I'm sorry, Miss Buck, but Sir Hallam sent for me.

I'm sorry, Mrs. Thackeray, but you've forgotten your place.

nella cucina di società.

--- Parlerò delle tue meringhe

in una lettera di licenziamento,

se dovrò ancora sistemare un caos come questo!

Mi dispiace, signorina Buck,

ma Sir Hallam ha mandato a chiamare me.

Mi dispiace, signora Thackeray, ma ti sei scordata qual è il tuo posto.

Asymmetrical relationships, however, are more frequent than symmetrical ones in Upstairs downstairs, both within the Holland family and between the servants.

The most prominent example of ‘upstairs’ asymmetrical relationship is that

between lady Agnes and her mother-in-law, Maud. From the beginning, lady

Holland generally addresses lady Agnes with the same informal tone she uses

with her son, therefore I decided to translate you with the T pronoun tu. Lady

Agnes, on the other hand, is always very respectful towards Maud because of

her age and the fact that she is her husband’s mother, and therefore I chose the

Italian V pronoun voi. As it happened in all the other examples, every time

subject pronouns are elided, only the verb expresses the relationship between

the two: with a singular second person suffix in Maud’s case, and with a plural second person suffix in Agnes’ case.

Example 16 is interesting not only because it is one of the few cases in which the pronoun has been rendered explicit in the Italian subtitles, but also because of the fact that it is indeed necessary to understand what lady Agnes is implying (i.e. that she did not want or did not expect lady Holland to arrive in that particular moment), and part of this meaning is conveyed by the tone she uses. This underlines how important it is to consider all the elements that make up an audiovisual product while translating it.

14. Maud

Agnes

15. Maud

Agnes

16. Agnes

Every morning, as soon as he sees me open my eyes, he applauds me.

I can't tell you how that boosts one's confidence.

The monkey applauds you every morning?

--- Oh, dear. I do believe you think I'm interfering.

I believe you were a fine wife to Sir Greville.

And now I'm trying to be a fine wife to his son.

--- Why did you come?

Tutte le mattine, non appena

mi vede aprire gli occhi, mi applaude.

Non ti dico quanto aumenti l'autostima.

La scimmia vi applaude tutte le mattine?

--- Oh, accidenti.

Pensi che io mi stia intromettendo.

Credo che foste

una buona moglie per sir Greville.

E adesso io provo a esserlo per suo figlio.

---

Perché siete venuta voi?

Maud

I need someone to send for Mr. Gascoigne!

I think it’s far too late for Mr. Gascoigne.

Ho bisogno

che qualcuno chiami il signor Gascoigne!

Penso che sia già troppo tardi.

The same strategy has been used in representing sir Hallam’s relationship with lady Holland, which he explicitly defines as a ‘stranger’. For this reason, in Italian he always addresses her with a V pronoun, even though she is his mother and she uses the T pronoun to address him.

17. Hallam

Maud

18. Hallam

Maud

Mother!

You acted without my permission!

I acted in everyone's best interest.

I shouldn't have to have your permission to do that.

--- Why did you tell me she had died?

Were you afraid I would not love her?

No.

Mamma!

Avete agito senza il mio permesso!

Ho agito nell'interesse di tutti.

Non dovrei chiederti il permesso per farlo.

--- Perché mi avete detto che era morta?

Avevate paura

che non le avrei voluto bene?

No.

I knew that you did. Sapevo che l'avresti fatto.

An example of a formal relationship between an ‘upstair’ and a ‘downstair’

character is that between lady Agnes and Miss Buck. In my subtitles they use reciprocal V form of address because there is a difference of social status, but also a difference in age: lady Agnes belongs to a higher social class than Miss Buck, but the latter is older, and therefore she is treated with respect. Of course, each time the pronoun has been elided, their reciprocal respectful attitude is expressed through the plural second person verbal suffixes.

19. Agnes

Miss Buck

Did anybody see you?

No, my lady.

Cod and two penneth, as you asked. No salt, plenty of vinegar.

Vi ha visto qualcuno?

No, milady.

Merluzzo e patatine, come avete chiesto. Niente sale, molto aceto.

In the series there are also examples of formal relationships between

‘downstairs’ characters, such as the one between Miss Buck and Mr Pritchard, the butler. Even though their relationship becomes less formal during the three episodes of the first series, he is nonetheless always treated with respect and formality by Miss Buck: in the first episode because he is a male stranger, as shown in example 20, and in the third because he is the head of staff, as it can be seen in example 21.

20. Miss Buck

Pritchard

Have you ever been in service in a private home?

My challenge, Miss

Siete mai stato in servizio in una residenza privata?

La sfida, signorina Buck,

21. Ivy

Miss Buck

Buck,

was to make a dining room that sat 300 feel like a private home.

--- I can’t lift this, it’s too heavy.

Mr. Pritchard, you’ll have to swap with her.

era far sembrare una sala da pranzo per 300 persone come quella di casa.

--- Non riesco ad alzarlo, è troppo pesante.

Signor Pritchard,

dovrete fare a cambio con lei.

The last examples in this section depict a relationship that changes considerably during the first series. Lady Persie and the chaffeur Harry Spargo develop a secret affair which ends as fast as it began, but which requires a gradual shift in the way they address each other. Even though this shift mainly happens in the second episode – which will not be analysed – the way they address each other in the first episode had to be different from the way they do it in the third one, therefore I decided to make Spargo use the V pronoun in those scenes where their relationship is still (or again, in the case of the end of the third episode) that of employer-employee, and the T pronoun when they are seen together in a more intimate environment. Lady Persie, having a higher social status, always addresses him with a T pronoun; the feature of her speech that distinguishes the two stages of their relationship is the fact that she begins calling him Harry – as in example 22 which is analysed in the next section.

22. Spargo

Persie

This isn't your home, and I haven't come to you.

You're losing your way.

Questa non è casa tua e non sono tornato da te.

Stai prendendo un'altra strada.

Spargo

Persie

Persie

Spargo

(23)Persie

Spargo

You don't come to meetings.

You go in secret.

You don't need the car.

I get the bus.

I've got beliefs. Unlike you, it would appear.

[...]

No-one has to do anything, Harry.

No-one has to accept the status quo.

You mean you don't have to.

--- Do we have anything to say to one another?

I don’t know what you mean, lady Persephone.

Non vieni agli incontri.

Ci vai di nascosto.

Non ti serve la macchina.

Prendo l'autobus.

Ho delle idee.

Al contrario di te, pare.

[...]

Nessuno deve fare

qualcosa per forza, Harry.

Nessuno deve accettare lo status quo.

Tu non devi.

--- Non abbiamo niente da dirci?

Non capisco cosa intendiate, Lady Persephone.

3.6 Nominal forms of address

Because of the wide range of nominal forms of address in English and of their

prominence in its address system, the general picture is more complicated than

in the previous section. The first and most urgent problem that had to be faced in the case of subtitles was obviously the limited space available. Given that nominal forms of address often have a higher number of characters than pronouns, and given that Italian address system presents a wider range of possibilities thanks to the use of verbal suffixes, the first issue was to check if there was enough space to maintain the nominal forms of address of the original, and, in case this was not possible, how could I compensate. Each case had to be evaluated individually, but on a general basis I have used three criteria to decide which of the many nominal forms of address should be maintained in the limited space available:

a)

whether or not the noun was essential to understand the phrase, because in that case it had to be maintained;

b)

if it was necessary for the characterization of the relationships between the characters. If it was, then, the next parameter was

c)

how many characters it contained.

Whether the forms of address should denote a formal or an informal relationship was established on the basis of the same parameters used for the pronouns: age, social class and shared experiences.

3.6.1 First names

First names are generally used throughout the whole series either to represent a close relationship between the characters, or to address the younger members of the staff – Johnny and Ivy. On a general basis, first names have been maintained in the subtitles when:

 they were used to introduce a character for the first time;

 they were necessary to understand the sentence;

 they helped characterising the relationship between the characters – but

only if space permitted it.

More specifically, examples 1, 2, and 3 represent cases of introductions of characters whose name was never mentioned before. Therefore, they had to be maintained in the translation in order to be grasped by the audience, even though they were not strictly necessary for the sentences to be understood.

1. Agnes

2. Hallam

3. Agnes

Persie

I’m sorry, Hallam, I had to go back for my flowers.

--- Agnes. I would like you to meet my mother, Maud.

--- Persie?

Hello, sister darling.

Perdonami, Hallam,

sono dovuta tornare a prendere i fiori.

--- Agnes, ti presento mia madre, Maud.

--- Persie?

Ciao, sorella cara.

The scenes the examples 4, 5, and 6 were taken from involved many characters and portrayed chaotic or frantic interactions. In these cases the names helped the viewer understand who the characters spoken to were, and for this reason they had to be maintained in the translation.

4. Miss Buck

5. Agnes

6. Pritchard

One foot in front of the other, Johnny!

--- Maud, there’s no need for you to involve yourself.

--- Ivy, dry your hands!

Un piede davanti all’altro, Johnny!

--- Maud, non c’è bisogno

che vi facciate coinvolgere.

---

Ivy, asciugati le mani!

Finally, example 7 was taken from an intimate dialogue between lady Persie (Agnes’s sister) and Harry Spargo, the chaffeur. At the moment the dialogue takes place the two are having an affair, therefore – even though in Italian this is also underlined by the reciprocal use of T pronouns – it is important for the characterisation of their relationship to maintain the fact that she addresses him as Harry, and not as Spargo, like the rest of the family and staff do.

7. Persie No-one has to do anything, Harry.

Nessuno deve fare niente per forza, Harry.

3.6.2 Familiarisers and kinship terms

Familiarisers and kinship terms have a fundamental role in defining which type of relationship exists between two characters, because they generally express various degrees of complicity and kinship.

The main problem that arose during their translation was that in most cases they were not absolutely necessary to understand the utterance, and the strict rules of subtitling often required them to be elided to give space to more fundamental elements, thus rendering characterisation less rich. The strategy that was applied in each case, therefore, depended mainly on the length of the utterance that had to be translated: if the form of address was in a longer sentence and there was no other way to ‘save space’, the kinship term or familiariser has been elided, otherwise it has been translated and maintained in the subtitles. In short utterances, on the other hand, they have generally been maintained, unless they were redundant.

As regards kinship terms, the only one that is often present as a form of

address in both the episodes under analysis is mother, and it is generally used

by sir Hallam to address lady Holland. The term has always been translated in

Italian as mamma: the alternative madre as a vocative, in fact, is exclusively

literary and therefore not appropriate to the context of subtitles, which should reproduce spoken language, although in an aristocratic setting.

Example 1 – taken from the first episode – shows the term contained in a long utterance, where it has been maintained because this is the first time that sir Hallam addresses lady Holland as mother. Example 2, on the other hand, is one of those cases where it was not strictly necessary to understand the utterance, but it has been maintained for characterisation purposes, given that there was enough space to insert it in the subtitles.

1. Hallam

2. Hallam

Mother, the last we heard you were going to Tangier.

--- Mother, Eden needs me to do this.

Mamma, le ultime notizie erano che stavate andando a Tangeri.

--- Mamma, Eden ha bisogno che lo faccia.

The last two examples, finally, show cases where the term was present in short sentences. In example 3, the term mother makes up the whole sentence by itself, and therefore it could be maintained. It is, though, an interesting example because the term was necessary to understand sir Hallam’s attitude towards lady Holland in this scene. However, this is evident only when the viewer hears the warning tone sir Hallam uses when pronouncing it, which obviously cannot be inferred by the subtitles. Like example 16 in section 3.5, this example too demonstrates the huge importance tone and visual context have in an audiovisual product, and the attention they must be given in the translation process.

Example 4, finally, shows a case where the term appears in a short turn, but

it could be elided because it is redundant.

3. Maud

4. Hallam

Hallam

I never heard a comment so doomed to reverberate.

Something must be done about what?

Is he referring to the miners or his own parlous position?

Mother...

--- Mother!

Mother, you will come out and speak to me.

Mai sentito un commento più destinato a risuonare.

Bisogna fare qualcosa riguardo a cosa?

Si riferiva ai minatori

o alla sua posizione pericolosa?

Mamma...

--- Mamma!

Venite fuori e parlate con me.

As regards familiarisers, the most prominent examples I found in the two episodes under analysis are old chap and dear, which respectively characterise the speech of the Duke of Kent and lady Holland.

Old chap is the way the Duke of Kent generally addresses sir Hallam throughout the whole series, and it was always translated with the Italian expression amico mio. Given that there were not cases where the it was necessary to understand the sentence, it has always been maintained because of the contribution it gives to the characterisation of the Duke’s speech, as in examples 5, 6, and 7. Moreover, the fact that it always appears in short utterances means that it does not require the elimination of other elements to be inserted in the subtitles.

5. Kent Believe me, Hallam, old Credimi, Hallam, amico mio,

6. Kent

7. Kent

chap,

I would like nothing more than to sink into a chair in

Glorious oblivion in the fug of that enthralling bar --- We’re old men, old chap.

Splendidly married and gainfully employed.

--- Ask him to dinner, old chap.

non vorrei nient’altro che sprofondare in poltrona

in un oblio glorioso

nell’aria viziata di quel bar allettante --- Siamo vecchi, amico mio.

Sposati splendidamente e impiegati proficuamente.

--- Invitalo a cena, amico mio.

Example 8, on the other hand, shows the only case where old chap is used by sir Hallam to address the Duke, and not vice versa. It is also interesting to notice that, in this specific case, the Duke addresses sir Hallam with the nickname Hal, which no one else ever uses.

8. Kent My brother’s gone, Hal.

He left on a destroyer.

It’s finished.

It’s finished and I ...

I don’t know where to start.

Mio fratello se n’è andato, Hal.

Con un cacciatorpediniere.

È finita.

È finita, e io ...

Non so da dove cominciare.

Hallam Start what, old chap?

Forgiving him.

Cominciare cosa, amico mio?

A perdonarlo.

The second most frequent familiariser, dear, is a feature typical of lady Holland’s speech, who usually addresses her son and lady Agnes in this way.

The term has always been translated as caro in the masculine and cara in the feminine. As it happened in the case of old chap, there were not situations where it was necessary to understand the sentence, and, when the space available allowed it, it was maintained in the subtitles only for characterisation purposes.

Examples 9, 10 and 11 show cases where the term is used together with the first names Hallam and Agnes. In examples 9 and 10 both terms of address have been maintained because the space allowed it, while in example 11, on the other hand, the name Agnes – which was not a necessary element in the utterance – has been elided in order to allow dear to be maintained. This choice was made because I believe that dear better characterises lady Holland’s informal attitude towards her daughter-in-law than the simple use of the first name; therefore, whenever a choice between the two had to be made, the term maintained has always been dear.

9. Maud

10. Maud

11. Maud

Hallam, dear.

Are we not to kiss?

--- Agnes, dear, I’m glad you called by.

--- Agnes, dear, do speak to Mrs. Thackeray about the

Hallam, caro.

Non ci baciamo?

--- Agnes, cara.

Sono contenta che tu sia passata.

--- Cara, parla con la signora

Thackeray della marmellata.

marmalade.

She only sends up thin- cut, and Solomon likes thick.

La manda su solo con pezzi piccoli, e a Solomon piacciono grandi.

Examples 12 and 13 are cases where dear was the only term of address in a short sentence, and, as it happened in the previous examples, it has been maintained and translated as caro/cara.

12. Maud

Hallam

Maud

13. Maud

Agnes

Maud

I understand she’s a favourite of the King.

I think you’ll find that she’s his mistress.

I know what “favourite”

means, dear.

--- It’s as I thought. The loss of her voice is entirely in her mind.

There must be other doctors who can help her.

Yes, dear. They’re called psychiatrists.

Ho sentito che è una favorita del re.

Potrete constatare che è la sua amante.

So cosa vuol dire “favorita”, caro.

--- È come pensavo. La perdita

della voce è tutta nella sua testa.

Ci devono essere

altri dottori che possano aiutarla.

Sì, cara. Si chiamano psichiatri.

3.6.3 Titles and honorifics

A characteristic of some period dramas – such as Downton Abbey – is the emphasis and attention they give to the differentiation of the various social classes, which is reflected in the way characters address each other. Upstairs Downstairs is no exception to this: the title itself hints at the social differences that exist between the two main groups of characters – the ‘upstairs’ Holland family, and the ‘downstairs’ staff – and there were many examples of titles and honorifics, generally used along with both first names and last names by the majority of the characters.

Therefore, even though social standing has already been mentioned among the parameters used to define the type of relationship existing between the characters while analysing pronouns and other forms of address, in the case of titles and honorifics it was fundamental in determining the most appropriate way to translate them into Italian, and also which would have been the best strategy between maintaining and eliding them.

As it happened with first names, kinship terms and familiarisers, the main problem that had to be faced was to maintain long expressions in the limited space available. In this case it was even more pressing because titles generally appeared in the form title + last name or title + first name, while honorifics always appeared by themselves or as honorific + last name, thus requiring a wider space than the rest of the terms of address. Therefore, it was of the utmost importance to determine whether the expression was necessary for the characterisation of the relationship between the characters, and more than before it had to be evaluated case by case, taking the length of the sentence into account.

The most common titles in English surely are Mr, Mrs and Miss, and many

examples of these forms can be found in both episodes. They always appear

accompanied by the last name of the character they are referred to, and are generally used to address either a person who is treated with respect for some reason (Miss Buck, Mrs Thackeray, Mr Pritchard, Mr Amanjit) or a stranger (Mr Gascoigne, Mr Harmsworth, Mrs Simpson). On a general basis, they have been translated with the Italian corresponding forms: signore for Mr, signora for Mrs and signorina for Miss.

Among the various examples that can be found in the translation, there are many that are referred to people treated with respect, and part of them concern staff members such as Mr Amanjit and Mr Pritchard. The former is always addressed with Mr + last name because he is lady Holland’s secretary, and therefore he is not exactly part of the house staff (there are, in fact, some scenes and lines in the first episode which underline this difference in status); the latter, as I have already mentioned when discussing pronouns, is the head of the staff, therefore everyone always addresses him with Mr + last name as a form of respect. Examples 1 and 2 show that the expression Mr Amanjit has always been translated as signor Amanjit, and maintained in the subtitles because it was necessary either to his characterisation – example 1 is the first time his name is mentioned – or to understand the utterance. Example 3 shows how Mr Pritchard was rendered as signor Pritchard, while example 4 shows a case where the expression has been elided because it had already been mentioned in the scene and was therefore not necessary to understand who Miss Buck is talking to.

Examples 5 and 6, on the other hand, are referred to a person addressed with

Mr + last name because he is a stranger. They are taken from the same scene

and proposed here in chronological order: example 5 is the first mention of Mr

Harmsworth’s name, and therefore the expression – translated as signor

Harmsworth – had to be maintained despite the fact that the sentence is quite

long; example 6 appears later on, and shows how the expression Mr

Harmsworth has been elided because not necessary.

1. Maud

2. Maud

3. Miss Buck

4. Miss Buck

5. Harmsworth

Maud

6. Maud

Mr. Amanjit, come quickly, they’re upsetting Solomon

--- Mr. Amanjit breakfasts there on a tray. I gave instructions to Miss Buck.

--- You may sit, Mr.

Pritchard.

--- This is the key to the wine cellar, Mr. Pritchard.

--- I’m disappointed, lady Holland. I had hoped to meet your famous monkey.

Solomon?

Sadly, Mr. Harmsworth, formal dining bores him.

--- I suggest you put it to her, Mr Harmsworth.

Signor Amanjit, venite subito, Stanno facendo agitare Solomon.

--- Il signor Amanjit fa colazione lì.

Ho dato istruzioni alla signorina Buck.

--- Potete sedervi, signor Pritchard.

--- Questa è la chiave della cantina.

--- Sono deluso, lady Holland. Speravo di incontrare la vostra famosa scimmia.

Solomon?

Purtoppo, signor Harmsworth, le cene formali lo annoiano.

--- Vi suggerisco di proporlo a lei.

Mrs + last name is another frequent form of address in both episodes. There

are mainly two characters addressed in this way, for different reasons: Mrs

Thackeray, the house cook, and Wallis Simpson, mistress and later wife of king Edward.

Mrs Thackeray is addressed as Mrs + last name by all the characters, specifically because she is older than most part of them, and because of the importance of her role in the staff. Example 7 shows the first time her name is uttered explicitly, which is the reason why it has been maintained as signora Thackeray despite the length of the sentence. Example 8, on the other hand, is more interesting; here the sentence is very long and the form of address is not a necessary element, but it is slightly different from the usual, because Mr Pritchard addresses her as Mrs Thack, a combination that has never appeared before. This is why it has been maintained and translated as signora Thack.

7. Miss Buck

8. Mrs Thack

Pritchard

Mrs. Thackeray, you can’t turn back the clock.

--- I still can’t credit we’ve got Cecil Beaton upstairs!

What does it look like, now it’s all set up?

You can’t fault the man on detail, Mrs. Thack.

He’s brought his own pillar

Signora Thackeray, non si può far tornare indietro l’orologio.

--- Ancora non ci credo

che Cecil Beaton sia qui!

Com’è di sopra, tutto agghindato?

Non lo si può certo criticare per i dettagli, signora Thack.

Si è portato una colonna.

Wallis Simpson is always addressed either as Mrs Simpson or Mrs Ernest

Simpson, because none of the characters who mentions her has an informal

relationship with her – she is either a stranger or a woman of the upper class to

be addressed with respect. Example 9 shows the first time her name is mentioned in the series: even though the sentence is short – therefore there would have been no need to omit any of its elements – the expression Mrs Simpson is necessary to understand who they are talking about, so it has been maintained and translated as signora Simpson. In example 10 the expression is mentioned twice, but rendered as signora Simpson only once; the second time it appears it was indeed necessary, because it was the subject of the sentence, but the sentence is too long. Therefore, it has been rendered as lei (“she”), which is shorter: the first mention of the expression, in fact, allows the viewer to understand who lei is anyway.

9. Kent

Hallam

10. Harmsworth

Have you heard about his Yankee woman?

Mrs. Simpson? Oh, yes.

--- The King must renounce Mrs. Simpson or the throne.

Mrs. Simpson has assured me that she understands entirely.

Hai sentito della sua donna americana?

La signora Simpson? Sì.

--- Il re deve rinunciare

alla signora Simpson o al trono.

Lei mi ha assicurato

che comprende perfettamente.

The last of the three most common English titles is Miss, which in the series

is almost exclusively used to address Rose Buck. She is, in fact, addressed as

Miss Buck by both the staff and the members of the Holland family. The only

character that seems to have an informal relationship with her is Mrs

Thackeray, but they generally address each other with title + last name.

Example 11 is one of the cases in which the expression was maintained and translated as signorina Buck only for characterisation purposes: it was, in fact, an unnecessary element of the sentence, but it underlined the particular way of addressing each other Mrs Thackeray and Miss Buck use. Therefore, given that there was enough space to insert it in the subtitle, it has been maintained.

Example 12, on the other hand, shows Miss Buck in a very long sentence, and therefore it would have been troublesome to maintain it in the corresponding subtitle. Therefore, given that in the scene there are only two characters, it has been omitted.

11. Mrs Thack

12. Agnes

No, I don’t know, Miss Buck.

I’d have to give notice to Virginia Water.

--- Now, Miss Buck, I know I gave you clear instructions about staff...

No, non lo so, signorina Buck.

Dovrei dare

Il preavviso a Virginia Water.

--- So di avervi dato

chiare direttive sul personale...

Other notable examples of titles used in the series are sir and lady, even though sir can also be found as a vocative. Sir is always used along with a first name, while lady can be found accompanied by both first names and last names. When they were maintained in the subtitles, these terms have been left in their original form as anglicisms.

The only major character who is addressed as Sir + first name is sir Hallam,

mainly because he belongs to the upper class (but he is not a lord, differently

from his wife). There were not cases where the expression has been elided,

because generally it was a necessary element of the sentence structure (either

the subject or the direct object), therefore examples 13 and 14 only show that it was always rendered as in the original, Sir Hallam.

13. Agnes

14. Maud

Sir Hallam is a diplomat.

We shall entertain a great deal.

--- Sir Hallam needs you to stay on at Eaton Place

To ensure the proper running of the home

Sir Hallam è un diplomatico.

Avremo ospiti molto spesso.

--- Sir Hallam ha bisogno

che voi rimaniate a Eaton Place

Per garantire

la giusta gestione della casa.

Lady + name is the formula both staff and strangers use to address Agnes, while lady + last name is used with Maud, who is the only one of the two addressed as lady Holland, to distinguish between the two. A third combination can be found, lady + diminutive, and it is the one used to address Agnes' sister, lady Persie.

In example 15, the vocative lady Agnes has been maintained in the subtitles even though it was not necessary to understand the sentence because this is the first time anyone addresses her with her title. Example 16 represents a case where lady Holland was elided because it was not necessary for characterisation, as the nuance of distance between her and Miss Buck was already conveyed by the verb in the plural second person.

Example 17 is proposed here not only because it is one of the many cases

where Persephone is called lady Persie, but also because it is one of the

circumstances in which the characters themselves give instructions to other

characters on how they or other people must be addressed. This is a peculiar

characteristics of Upstairs Downstairs, because it happens quite often in both episodes: another interesting example, in fact, could be the entire scene exclusively dedicated to the moment before a cocktail party when Mr Pritchard instructs the rest of the staff on how they should address the guests, the Duke and Duchess of Kent, and the king. This is the reason why the second time the expression lady Persie appears it has been maintained in the subtitles despite not being fundamental to the comprehension of the sentence.

15. Miss Buck

16. Miss Buck

17. Persie

Spargo

What I was hoping to ascertain, lady Agnes,

was whether there were any children in the family?

--- You caught me unawares, lady Holland.

--- My sister says you're all to call me lady Persie,

If that's what I want.

And I do.

I won't call you lady anything if you don't act like one.

Quello di cui volevo accertarmi, lady Agnes,

era se ci fossero bambini in famiglia.

--- Mi avete preso alla sprovvista.

--- Mia sorella dice

che dovete chiamarmi tutti lady Persie,

se lo desidero.

E io lo desidero.

Non vi chiamerò lady un bel nulla

se non vi comportate come tale.

The thing is, lady Persie, there are rules.

Lady Persie,

il fatto è che ci sono delle regole.

As far as regards honorifics, there were four that were especially common in both episodes: sir used as a vocative, madam, your ladyship and Your Royal Highness. A case similar to madam is the honorific milady, which will not be analysed in detail in the present work because it can be found in only one of the two episodes, and it is only used a few times by Miss Buck to address lady Agnes; the strategy used to translate, it, however, is the same as that adopted for sir and madam.

Among the various types of form of address analysed in this work, in fact, sir and madam are the ones that have been elided more often in the subtitles.

This happened because they were scarcely ever necessary elements in the sentence, and therefore their purpose was only characterisation. Then, the strategy that has been used in each case depended for the most part on the context: whenever the honorific was referred for the first time to a particular character, it has been maintained, and the same has happened whenever its use helped to collocate a new character in a certain social class. When this happened, they were translated as signore and signora. Apart from a few exceptions, in all the other cases these honorifics were elided, because the nuance of distance they conveyed could be expressed in Italian by other means – i.e. the V pronoun, or the verb suffixes.

Example 18 represents one of the situations where sir is referred to a

character for the first time, and in this case it is also the first time sir Hallam

addresses someone this way. Therefore it was important for the definition of

the relationship between Sir Hallam and Mr Eden, the Foreign Secretary: Sir

Hallam is one of his employees, and therefore he addresses him with respect. It

is interesting to point out, though, that Mr Eden is the only one who addresses

Sir Hallam with his last name and no title.

Example 19 represents one of the few exceptions to the general strategy described above. Here sir has been maintained and translated as signore because Mr Amanjit is begging Sir Hallam to do something, and rendering the utterance only with the imperative – even though with a plural second person suffix – would have appeared as if he was being disrespectful when he is not.

Examples 20 and 21, on the other hand, show a sample of the most common cases, where sir has been elided because there were other elements either in the sentence or in the whole scene which suggested the formality of the situation.

18. Hallam

Mr Eden

19. Hallam

Mr Amanjit

20. Harmsworth

21. Ivy

Sir.

Holland.

--- Mother!

Mother! You will come out and speak to me.

Damn you!

Leave her be, sir.

--- Mrs Simpson cares, sir.

--- I'm sorry, sir! She sleeps with me, but I never heard her wake!

Signore.

Holland.

--- Mamma!

Venite fuori e parlate con me

Accidenti!

Lasciatela in pace, signore.

--- Alla signora Simpson importa.

--- Mi dispiace! Dorme con me,

ma non l'ho sentita svegliarsi!

Madam has been translated using the same strategy as sir. Therefore, example 22 represents one of the cases where it has been maintained and translated as signora because it is the first time lady Holland is addressed as such by Mr Amanjit, thus clarifying the type of relationship they have.

Example 23, on the other hand, is interesting because it is one of the few situations where madam is actually necessary to understand the sense of the whole scene that comes after – which was analysed as example 17 – because lady Persie's indication on how she wants to be addressed arises from the fact that Spargo calls her madam, here translated as signora.

22. Maud

Mr Amanjit

23. Spargo

Persie

Poor Solomon.

He'll need sweet tea.

If there's nothing in the kitchen you must take him to a cabstand.

Very good, madam.

--- Um. You're meant to wait out in front of the house.

And get in the back.

Please, madam.

My sister says you're all to call me lady

Povero Solomon.

Avrà bisogno di tè zuccherato.

Se non c'è niente in cucina,

portatelo in un parcheggio dei taxi.

Va bene, signora.

--- Dovreste aspettare fuori,

Di fronte alla casa.

E salire dietro.

Per favore, signora.

Mia sorella dice

che dovete chiamarmi tutti lady Persie,

Persie,

If that's what I want.

And I do.

se lo desidero.

E io lo desidero.

The last two forms of address that will be analysed in this work will be the honorifics Your Royal Highness and your ladyship.

There is only one character addressed as Your Royal Highness who actually appears in the series, the Duke of Kent. Given the uniqueness of this character's status, the way he is addressed by the others (with the exception of sir Hallam, as it has been explained above) should have been maintained to underline this difference in status in a clearer way than by using only the V pronoun and verb suffixes. Therefore, this expression has always been translated and maintained in the subtitles with the corresponding Italian form Vostra Altezza Reale.

Examples 24 and 25 are proposed as a confirmation of this strategy: in both of them the expression could have been omitted without compromising the sense of the sentence, rendering the subtitle shorter and more easily readable, but it has been maintained nonetheless.

24. Waiter

Kent

25. Agnes

Will that be all, Your Royal Higness?

Yes, thank you.

--- But, Your Royal Highness, why has Mrs Simpson come with him?

È tutto, Vostra Altezza Reale?

Sì, grazie.

---

Ma, Vostra Altezza Reale, perché

la signora Simpson è venuta con lui?

The case of your ladyship is slightly different. This expression is used in only one scene of the third episode by Mr Pritchard to address lady Agnes, but I believe that it has a strong characterising degree. The scene, in fact, depicts the moment lady Agnes unexpectedly gives birth to her son in the house bathroom assisted by lady Holland and Mr Pritchard, which is obviously a highly frenetic scene. It is a moment when lady Holland and Agnes let go of all the formalities and, for example, address the butler only with his last name, without using any titles, as showed in example 26; Mr Pritchard, on the other hand, does not do this: at the tensest point in the scene he keeps addressing Agnes as your ladyship as if the situation were normal. This unexpected attitude – in other occasions he had been depicted as an anxious man – should be underlined in the subtitles, too, and the use of the V pronoun and verbal suffixes did not draw the necessary attention on it. This is the reason why your ladyship has been translated as vostra signoria and maintained in the subtitles, as can be seen in examples 27 and 28.

26. Pritchard

Maud

27. Pritchard

28. Pritchard

Might I be of any assistance?

Oh, yes, Pritchard, you may.

--- Could you just blow, your ladyship?

Blow and blow again as if you're putting out a lot of candles.

--- You have a little boy, your ladyship.

Posso essere d’aiuto?

Oh, sì, Pritchard, puoi.

--- Potreste soffiare, vostra signoria?

Soffiate ancora e ancora,

come se doveste spegnere tante candele.

---

È un maschietto, vostra signoria.

3.7 Politeness in Upstairs Downstairs

Because of their capacity to convey distance or vicinity between the interlocutors, terms of address can be included among the linguistic devices used to convey politeness. As I have already mentioned before, period dramas such as Upstairs Downstairs place much emphasis on the social differences among the characters, and this means that politeness is a fundamental part in the structure of their dialogues. Therefore, to make the picture more complete, some other linguistic devices that are used to express politeness in the series are commented upon, together with their translation.

From a general point of view, it must be made clear in advance that all the characters sound formal to a contemporary ear. Period dramas, in fact, require scriptwriters to use a register befitting the period depicted, in order to reinforce the “illusion of reality” (Creeber, 2004) necessary to a product that aims to represent ‘history’. Therefore, even though there are indeed differences between informal and formal situations, the whole script presents some peculiar traits that distinguish it from contemporary English – such as the almost complete absence of non-standard forms, limited to the speech of the youngest ‘downstairs’ characters, Ivy and Johnny.

3.7.1 Method of analysis

Throughout the series, the situations where it is more likely to observe politeness at work are:

 the many interactions between the Holland family and their staff, which are always formal because of the difference in social status existing between the interlocutors;

 the utterances directed to lady Holland, who is always treated politely

because of either her old age or her social status.

This part of the analysis focuses primarily on these interactions and on some of the devices used to convey politeness that can be observed in these situations. I decided to exclude the lexicon because – as has been pointed out before – the vocabulary that the characters of Upstairs Downstairs use is always quite formal, even in relaxed contexts, and does not display significant variations on the basis of the degree of politeness required by the situation. On a general basis, the parameters I used to define an interaction formal or informal are the same I used when I analysed terms of address: age, social class and shared experiences.

Before moving on to the actual analysis, however, it could be interesting to provide some examples of the frequency of formal and unusual lexicon throughout the whole series, both in formal and in informal situations, in order to give a general overview of the peculiar setting Upstairs Downstairs represents.

Examples 1, 2 and 3, in particular, are interesting because they show the unusual frequency of the modal shall instead of the more common will when someone is talking about the future in the first person. Given the contemporary tendency to use will in such context (cfr. Collins English Dictionary, Cambridge English Dictionary), this could be considered as an example of the devices used by writers to emphasise the sensation of being in the past.

However, this nuance is completely lost in the translation: because of the different structure of the Italian future tense, there was no other way to render the meaning of these utterances.

1. Miss Buck

2. Agnes

Shall I fetch a plate for you, my lady?

--- Though I shall need your

Vi prendo un piatto?

---

Ma avrò bisogno