Cosmic ray detection in space

Valerio Vagelli

I.N.F.N. Perugia, Università degli Studi di Perugia Corso di Fisica dei Raggi Cosmici A.A. 2018/2019

Cosmic ray detection in space

www.ams02.org+

i) Introduction to Cosmic Rays!

ii) Space Borne Experiments!

iii) The AMS-02 detector!

!

Valerio Vagelli

I.N.F.N. Perugia, Università degli Studi di Perugia Corso di Fisica dei Raggi Cosmici A.A. 2018/2019

Cosmic Rays

p

(~90%)

e^- (~1%)

He (~8%)

Be, C, Fe

(~1%)

e⁺,p

•  Cosmic ray Flux: Intensity of CR in space per unit of area, solid angle, time and energy

•  Energy range up to 10²⁰ eV

•  Intensities spanning 30 orders of magnitude

•  Most of cosmic rays are protons and nuclei Cosmic ray flux at Earth !

POWER LAW SPECTRUM+

“KNEE”!

“ANKLE”!

1 particle per m² per second+

1 particle per m² per year+

1 particle per km² per year+

Experimental detection

Energy (GeV)

−2

10 1 10² 10⁴ 10⁶ 10⁸ 10¹⁰ 10¹² )-1 sr s]2 ( GeV [mΦ × 2 E

−7

10

−4

10

−1

10 102

105 h2

pro ams antip ams (ratio*pro) diffuse gammas (sim) electron ams positron ams pro atic uhecr tibet uhecr kaskade grande uhecr auger

Space exp!

Balloon exp!

Ground exp! Protons!

Electrons!

Positrons!

Antiprotons!

Photons (diffuse)!

AMS!

ATIC!

All Particles!

TIBET!

KASKADE GRANDE!

AUGER!

AMS!

AMS!

AMS!

p

(~90%)

e^- (~1%)

He (~8%)

Be, C, Fe

(~1%)

e⁺,p

•  Primary cosmic rays interact with atmosphere. Only secondary CRs from interactions reach the ground.

•  Flux steeply falling as function of energy. Need large collection areas

Ground based experiments

Gamma Rays!

Charged CRs!

•  √ Large collection areas ! probe CR energies TeV –Eev ranges

•  X Indirect measurements

•  Primary CR identified via the analysis of shower shapes and composition at ground (highly rely on MonteCarlo simulations)

•  Main systematics are the parametrization of X-sections at very high energies

Cosmic ray detection in space Valerio Vagelli

Balloon experiments

•  √ Larger acceptances than space borne experiments

•  √ Direct measurements

•  X Orbit limited at North poles for maximum 1 month

•  X Residual atmosphere above the payload

ATIC BESS

Space Borne experiments

•  √ Direct measurements outside atmosphere

•  √ Continuous duty cycles, typically many years of lifetime

•  √ Field of view covering the whole sky

•  X Smaller acceptances

•  X Operation in space and communications not trivial

•  X “Use once and destroy”

IMP!series!<!GeV/n!

ACE1CRIS/SIS!!Ekin!<!GeV/n!

VOYAGER1HET/CRS!<!100!MeV/n!

ULYSSES1HET!(nuclei)!!<!100!MeV/n!

ULYSSES1KET!!(electrons)!<!10!GeV!

CRRES/ONR!<!(nuclei)!600!MeV/n!

HEAO3&C2)(nuclei))<)40)GeV/n)

Long+missions+(years)+

Small+payloads+

Low+energies..+

CRRES+

VOYAGER+

ULYSSES+

HEAO+

ACE+

IMPJ+

Long+missions+

Large+payloads+

Short+missions+(days)/+Larger+payloads+

+ ++ ++ + ++ + +

CRN+on+Challenger++

(3.5!days!1985)!

AMSI01+on+Discovery+

(8!days,!1998)!

PAMELA+

AMSI02+

FermiILAT+

DAMPE++ CALET+

Mechanical stress at launch:

" Static acceleration

" Random vibration

" Sinusoidal vibration

" Pyroshock

Life in space:

" Thermal stresses due to Sun-light (seasonal / day-night effects)

" Vacuum

Careful Design, Model validation and Qualification are needed to ensure highest possible reliability

Operations in Space

Operations in Space

Thermal

Stress Functional check

Mechanical Stress Thermal cycles

in Vacuum Functional check

Full space qualification sequence before launch:

■  Operational tests after stress

■  Verification of dynamical behaviour

■  Verification of thermal model

Functional check

EMC

Space is a harsh environment

Operations in Space

Space is a harsh environment

Typically 3 step for test procedure:

Thermal, Vibration, Thermo-Vacuum

Operations in Space

THERMO-VACUUM TESTS VIBRATION TESTS

THERMAL MODELS

Prototype Prototype

Prototype

EM

QM1 QM2

FM, FS (==QM2)

functional

+ Vibration, Thermal

+ Thermal- Vacuum, EMC, Prod.

All (min level) Models Testing

Components

Performance, Beam Test

The long process to fly….

Particle Identification (in space)

•  Direct identification of the cosmic rays via measurement of their

•  Velocity (Time of Flight systems, Cherenkov Radiation detectors)

•  Charge (dE/dX detectors, Cherenkov Radiation detectors)

•  Energy or Rigidity (Calorimeters, Spectrometers)

•  Sign of the charge (Spectrometers)

•  Peculiar Interactions (TR detectors, Calorimeters, Neutron detectors, …)

•  Incoming Direction (Tracking detectors)

Energy (GeV)

1 10 10² 10³

)-1 sr s]2 ( [GeV mΦ

−3

10

−2

10

−1

10 1 10 102

103

104 •  p/e^- ~ 10²

•  p/e⁺ ~ 10³

•  p/antip ~ 10⁴

protons

electrons positrons

antiprotons

Particle identification is fundamental for antimatter measurements

Particle Identification

•  Particles are uniquely identified by their velocity, momentum and sign of the charge combining the information from several subdetectors

•  Curvature in magnetic field

•  Velocity after time of flight measurements

•  Ionization losses

•  Calorimetric measurements

•  Typically, measurements are more than the number of searched

parameters ! multiple measurements used to over-constrain the values and to crosscheck systematic effects

•  NB: at high energies (β-->1), the sensitivity of velocity measurements decreases. Complementary techniques used to infer the particle energy.

⇢ / R = p Ze

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dE

dX = f (z, )

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E

= ( 1)mc

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Ionization energy losses

Main effect of energy loss in materials:

continuous energy losses by ionization from scattering off atomic electrons

Scattering off electrons: high energy losses, small trajectory deviation

Scattering off nuclei: small energy losses, high scattering angles (multiple scattering)

Bethe-Block formula: energy loss per unit of grammage z,β

Z,A

Energy loss depends on particle and medium properties.

dE

dX = 0.31 MeV/(g/cm

) z

Z A

1

2

 1

2 log(f ( ))

( )

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X = ⇢ x

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dE

dX / z²

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proportionality to particle charge used to identify heavy nuclei

Ionization energy losses

MIP: Minimum Ionizing Particle

relativistic rise

Minimum Ionizing particles

dE

dX _|min ⇡ 1.5 ÷ 2 MeV/(g/cm²)

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Below minimum: higher energy losses ~ 1/β²

Above minimum: energy loss approx. constant (relativistic rise)

At very high energies (above the “critical energy”) radiative energy losses dominates.

gaussian

Landau

The most probable energy loss does not coincide with the average energy loss due to rare large angle scatterings.

The Bethe-Block formula describes the parametrization of the average energy losses

Multiple scattering

Many small angle deviations can result in a net angle when traversing a material slab

In average <θ>=0, but the distribution has a width

This results in a limit of resolution for tracking applications.

The less material, the better the tracking resolution.

Charge ID

dE

dX / z²

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charge proportionality used to identify heavy nuclei

Distribution of energy deposits can have long tails

Consequence: multiple measurements of energy deposits are needed to sample the Landau distribution and correctly infer the particle charge

Charge sampled in one layer of silicon

“Landau” distribution, long tails

Charge sampled in seven layer of silicon

Estimator built using mean / truncated mean / likelihood --> Charge resolution improved

H He Li Be B C N O

dE/dX measurements

Scintillators

Conversion of ionization energy in photons detected with photodetectors Organic/plastic scintillators:

- low Z, density = 1 g/cm3 - fast (ns)

- low light yield

- used for timing applications

Inorganic/crystal scintillators:

- high Z, dense - slow

- high light yield

- used for calorimetric applications

A fraction of energy deposited in the scintillator creates photons in the visible range (details depend on the material)

Typical energy to create one photon

= 100 eV/γ

dE/dX measurements

Scintillators

Photomultipliers (PMT) convert photons in measureable electric pulses

Photocathode: photons generate a free photoelectron via photoelectric effect

Dynodes: d.d.p. (kV) between dynodes accelerates electrons. Electrons hitting dynodes may generate a number (approx 3-5) of free electrons to be accelerated

Anode: at the end of many diodes (approx. 10), electrons are collected

For each photoelectron, approx. 10⁷ electrons are collected at the anode (gain of the PMT)

Photo-detection efficiency < 30% for PMTs

I

/ N / E

dE/dX measurements

Scintillators

Plastic scintillators are used in space detectors as planes to “trigger” (i.e. start) the data acquisition of the whole detector

Time coincidence between different planes used as fast trigger signal

Time of flight

= S

c (t₁ t₂)

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•  Path of relativistic particles: 30 cm/ns

•  Typical spans are order of 1m ! time resolution of ns are needed to measure the particle velocity up to c

•  Fast Scintillators coupled to fast photodetectors (PMT, SiPM) are commonly used

dE/dX measurements

Solid state detectors

TRANSIENT:!

gradient!of!concentraSon!11>!diffusion!of!

charge!carriers!

x

E

~

EQUILIBRIUM:!

creaSon!of!space!charge!zone!

depleted!zone:!no!charge!carrier,!net!electric!charge!=0!

P!and!N!zone:!charge!equilibrium,!net!electric!charge=0!

zona!ele]ricamente!neutra! zona!ele]ricamente!neutra!

pIn+juncUon+

dE/dX measurements

Solid state detectors

dE/dX measurements

Solid state detectors

The depletion zone is maximized by application of a reverse bias voltage

The charge is collected in one (or few more strips) ->

this provides information on the particle crossing position

Strip readout pitch approx 100µm (or less) -> can achieve position resolution down to 10µm or better using center of gravity of energy deposit.

The amount of charge, proportional to the ionization and to Z², is used to infer the charge of the particle

dE/dX measurements

Solid state detectors

La giunzione p-n e i rivelatori a microstrip di silicio

 Una particella carica attraversa un

sottile strato (300µ m) di silicio drogato n ed interagendo con il materiale libera

24000 coppie e/h (x Z²)

 Sulla superficie del silicio sono impiantate delle sottili strisce di

drogaggio p+ (6µ m ogni 108 µ m) ed il sistema p+-n è mantenuto in condizioni di polarizzazione inversa

 Le cariche e/h generate vengono raccolte dalle due parti della

giunzione sulle strisce p+ e su delle strisce n+ dirette in senso ortogonale tramite contatti metallici

 L’ampiezza del segnale rilasciato ci permette di valutare la carica Z della particella

 La posizione della striscia colpita permette di risalire alla posizione di passaggio della particella

A!charged!parScle!crosses!a!thin!layer!of!n1doped!

silicon!(typically!300µm)!and!interacSng!with!the!

material!frees!in!average!100!e/h!pairs!per!µm,!for!

a!total!of!30a10^3!pairs!in!300µm!

!In!the!silicon!surface,!thin!p+!strips!are!implanted!

(c.a.!10µm!every!c.a.!100µm).!The!p+/n!system!is!

kept!in!reverse!polarizaSon.!Less!than!100V!are!

needed!to!completely!deplete!the!silicon!bulk.!

!

The!e/h!pairs!are!collected!on!the!opposite!sides!of!

the!silicon.!!

In!some!cases,!n+!strips!are!added!running!in!the!

opposite!direcSon!on!the!opposite!side!of!p+!strips!

(double+sided+silicon).!This!allows!the!

measurement!of!both!coordinates.!

+

! Coordinata+

(in!“canali”,!da!converSre!in!posizione)!

Spectrometers

Magnetic Spectrometers! •  Charged particle bent in magnetic field

•  The sagitta is measured by sampling the particle trajectory through different planes

•  Master formula of charged particle in MF Simple 2D sagitta model!

•  Rigidity defines the particle trajectory in a magnetic field

R = p/Ze

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R(GeV) = q B ⇢ = 0.3 B(T) ⇢(m)

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Spectrometers

B L²

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s(m) = 0.3 B L² 8 p

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Rigidity (GV)

1 10 10² 10³ 10⁴

Sagitta (mm)

−3

10

−2

10

−1

10 1 10 102

BL² = 1 m² T

(future supercond missions)!

BL² = 0.1 m² T (current missions)!

Spectrometers

Sagitta defined by the measurement of at least 3 points. The error on the sagitta is determined by the accuracy of the coordinate measurement

s = x₁ + x₃

2 x₂

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2(s) =

2(x)

4 +

2(x)

4 + ²(x)

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(s) =

r3

2 (x)

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(p)

p = (R)

R = (s)

s =

r3 2

8 (x)

0.3 B L² · p

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(p)

p / p, (x), 1 B L²

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Spectrometer resolution worsens at high rigidities and can be improved by better coordinate measurement accuracy and better bending power

•  L ~ Spectrometer dimensions, limited by the space constraints

•  B, limited by magnet size and technology (superconducting magnet in space?)

•  σ(x) ~ position resolution ! experimental effort to achieve resolutions below 10μm