An assessment of the rational actor model in international cooperation : small states as aid donors

IN I N T E R N A T I O N A L C O O P E R A T I O N . S M A L L S T A T E S AS A I D D O N O R S . f"' B e i n g a D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e p a r e d a n d P r e s e n t e d a t t h e E u r o p e a n U n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t e B Y L E O N C E B E K E M A N S

III

_II

338 91 BEK AN A S S E S S M E N T OF T H E R A T I O N A L A C T O R M O D E L IN I N T E R N A T I O N A L C O O P E R A T I O N . S M A L L S T A T E S AS A I D D O N ORS. B e i n g a D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e p a r e d and P r e s e n t e d a t the E u r o p e a n U n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t e B Y L E O N C E B E K E M A N S

The s t r a n g e n e s s of this b u s i n e s s ; at p i c k e d l e i s u r e W h i c h s h a l l be s h o r t l y single, I'll r e s o l v e you, W h i c h to you s h a l l s e e m p r o b a b l e , of e v e r y

T h e s e h a p p e n e d a c c i d e n t s ; till then be c h e e r f u l , And t hink of e a c h t h i n g well.

C o m e h i t h e r , spirit.

In the c o u r s e of thi s s t u d y I h a v e b e n e f i t e d fr om the a d v i c e and e n c o u r a g e m e n t of s e v e r a l p e o p l e w i t h o u t w h o m I u o u l d not h a v e w r i t t e n this stu dy. I am g r a t e f u l to P r o f e s s o r P i e r r e S a l mon, my s u p e r v i s o r , for his

v a l u a b l e c o m m e n t s on the o r i g i n a l d r a f t and for his c o n ­ s t r u c t i v e s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r i m p r o v e m e n t s . The

i n t e r c h a n g e of i deas and i n f o r m a t i o n has been v e r y usef u l . The E u r o p e a n U n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t e c r e a t e d a s t i m u l a t i n g c l i m a t e for my s t u d i e s . I s h o u l d like to take the o p p o r t u n i ­ ty to e x p r e s s my t h a n k s to n u m e r o u s p e o p l e at the B a d i a

F i e s o l a n a , in the D e p a r t m e n t of E c o n o m i c s as w e l l as in the l i b r a r y or in the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . M y stay in F i r e n z e has b een a rich e x p e r i e n c e and n e v e r - e n d i n g c h a l l e n g e .

I am also i n d e b t e d to p e o p l e in B r u g g e . Some g a v e me p r e c i o u s h e l p to see me t h r o u g h the i n t r i c a c i e s of t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e ; o t h e r s o f f e r e d me p r a c t i c a l help, p a r t i c u l a r l y J o h a n M i c h i e l s s e n s . A s p e c i a l 'thank you' g o e s to A s t r i d H o o i j b e r g for h a v i n g p a t i e n t l y typ ed s u c c e s s i v e d r a fts.

F i n a l l y , I t h ank my p a r e n t s . In deed, w i t h o u t the b e n e f i t of t h e i r s i l e n t h e l p and e n c o u r a g e m e n t I u ould no t have f i n i s h e d this l o n g - l a s t i n g e n d e a v o u r .

P r e f a c e T a b l e of C o n t e n t s T a b l e s ~ F i o u r e s I N T R O D U C T I O N 1 1. P u r p o s e of the R e s e a r c h 1 2. S c o p e and O r g a n i z a t i o n of the R e s e a r c h 6 C H A P T E R I A N A L Y S I S IN I N T E R N A T I O N A L R E L A T I O N S : 11 M O D E L S AND H Y P O T H E S E S I n t r o d u c t i o n 11 A. C o m p e t i n g F r a m e w o r k s and the S t u d y of I n t e r n a t i o n a l 15 R e l a t i o n s 1. The I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y s t e m : the C l a s s i c a l M o d e l 15 a. B a s i c s of the C l a s s i c a l M o d e l 15 b. 5ome C r i t i q u e s of the B a s i c A s s u m p t i o n s 18 2. The I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y s t e m : the C o m p l e x I n t e r - 23 d e p e n d e n c e M o d e l 3. C o m p e t i n g F r a m e w o r k s in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s : 26 An E v a l u a t i o n B. The R a t i o n a l A ctor M o d e l ; B a s i c A s s u m p t i o n s 30 of the A n a l y s i s 1. G e n e r a l F r a m e w o r k 31 2. P o s s i b l e R e l a x a t i o n s 32 3. M a i n T r a n s p o s i t i o n s 34

R E V I E U OF THE L I T E R A T U R E I n t r o d u c t i o n 39 A. I n t e r n a t i o n a l E c o n o m i c s ' T h e o r y 44 B. I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s ’ T h e o r y 48 1. S u m m a r y of the L i t e r a t u r e 48 a. O b j e c t i v e P o w e r S o u r c e s 49 a.1. M i l i t a r y C a p a b i l i t y 49 a . 2. P o p u l a t i o n S i z e 50 a . 3. P o p u l a t i o n - E c o n o m i c C r i t e r i o n 52 a . 4. A g g r e g a t e d C r i t e r i o n 53 C o n c l u s i o n 54 b. B e h a v i o u r a l T e n d e n c i e s 55 b.1. S e c u r i t y P e r c e p t i o n s 55 b.2. O t h e r B e h a v i o u r a l T e n d e n c i e s 58 C o n c l u s i o n 59 2. A n a l y t i c a l F r a m e w o r k for F o r e i g n P o l i c y B e h a v i o u r 59 3. K e o h a n e ' s S y s t e m i c R o l e C l a s s i f i c a t i o n 62 a. D e f i n i t i o n 62 b. E v a l u a t i o n 64 C o n c l u s i o n 67 C H A P T E R III T H E P U B L I C G O O D S T H E O R Y OF M A N C U R O L S O N i 69 C O N T E N T S , D E V E L O P M E N T S AND A P P L I C A T I O N S I n t r o d u c t i o n 69 A. The C o l l e c t i v e G o o d s T h e o r y of O l s o n î C o n t e n t s 75 1. T h e o r y C o n s t r u c t i o n 75 a. T h e R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G r o u p s and the C o l l e c t i v e 75 Good b. O l s o n ' s M o d e l of G r o u p s or O r g a n i z a t i o n s 77 b.1. G e n e r a l 77

b.2. a . The R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G r o u p Size and 78 the P r o v i s i o n of C o l l e c t i v e G o o d s b.2. b . C o s t - s h a r i n g w i t h i n S m a l l - s i z e d G r o u p s 81 2. T h e o r y T e s t i n g 82 B. The C o l l e c t i v e G o o d s T h e o r y of O l s o n : C r i t i q u e s a n d 86 D e v e l o p m e n t s 1. C r i t i q u e s of O l s o n ' s T h e o r y of G r o u p s or O r g a n i z a t i o n s 86 2. F u r t h e r D e v e l o p m e n t of O l s o n ' s T h e o r y of G r o u p s or 88 O r g a n i z a t i o n s a. A D e d u c t i v e M o d e l of L e a d e r s h i p 88 b. E l a b o r a t i o n s of O l s o n ' s C o l l e c t i v e G o o d s T h e o r y 90 in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s C o n c l u s i o n 96 C H A P T E R IV AN A S S E S S M E N T OF SOME E L E M E N T S OF O LSON *S 97 P U B L I C G O O D S A P P R O A C H TO I N T E R N A T I O N A L R E L A T I O N S I n t r o d u c t i o n 97 A. An A s s e s s m e n t of the P u b l i c G o o d C o n c e p t 98 1. The C o n c e p t of P u b l i c G o o d 98 a. S a m u e l s o n ' s O r i g i n a l D e f i n i t i o n 98 b. T h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a P u b l i c Goo d 99 b.1. N o n - R i v a l n e s s 99 b.2. N o n - E x c l u s i o n 102 2. I m p u r e P u b l i c G o o d s 104 3. Th e R e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h O t h e r C o n c e p t s 108 a. P u b l i c G o o d s and E x t e r n a l i t i e s 109 b. P u b l i c G o o d s an d J o i n t P r o d u c t s 112 c. P u b l i c G o o d s and E c o n o m i c s of S c a l e 113

f o r P u b l i c G o o d A l l o c a t i o n 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n 114 2. G r a p h i c R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a N o n - C o o p e r a t i v e C o u r n o t 117 E q u i l i b r i u m and a C o o p e r a t i v e P a r e t o E q u i l i b r i u m a. Th e C o u r n o t E q u i l i b r i u m 117 b. The L i n d a h l E q u i l i b r i u m 120 c. A C o m p a r i s o n of the C o u r n o t E q u i l i b r i u m and 121 the L i n d a h l E q u i l i b r i u m C. An A s s e s s m e n t of the P u b l i c G o o d C o n c e p t in 124 I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o o p e r a t i o n I n t r o d u c t i o n 124 1. A C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of I n t e r n a t i o n a l G o o d s and 127 the R e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l A r r a n g e m e n t s 2. The I m p o r t a n c e of S i d e - e f f e c t s in I n t e r n a t i o n a l 137 C o o p e r a t i o n 3. Th e R e l e v a n c e of a P u b l i c G o o d s P e r s p e c t i v e in 141 I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s C o n c l u s i o n 146 C H A P T E R V T H E O R E T I C A L Q U A L I F I C A T I O N S OF A P U B L I C G O O D S 148 A P P R O A C H TO I N T E R N A T I O N A L R E L A T I O N S I n t r o d u c t i o n 148 A. A R e a c t i o n P r o c e s s M o d e l : A Q u a l i f i c a t i o n of O l s o n ' s 149 P u b l i c G o o d s M o d e l I n t r o d u c t i o n 149 1. The I n d e p e n d e n t A d j u s t m e n t P r o c e s s 150 a. A s s u m p t i o n s 150 b. A P u b l i c G o o d R e a c t i o n F u n c t i o n f o r O n e C o u n t r y 151 c. T h e R e a c t i o n P r o c e s s b e t w e e n Two C o u n t r i e s 157

3. E q u i l i b r i u m C o n d i t i o n s for P u b l i c G o o d O u t p u t 161 C o n c l u s i o n 168 B. An I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o o p e r a t i o n M o d e l : A R e - s t a t e m e n t 170 of R u g g i e ' s M o d e l I n t r o d u c t i o n 170 1. R u g g i e ' s M o d e l of I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o l l a b o r a t i o n 171 2. R e - s t a t e m e n t of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o o p e r a t i o n M o d e l 174 C o n c l u s i o n 1 7 9 C H A P T E R VI THE P H E N O M E N O N OF I N T E R N A T I O N A L D E V E L O P M E N T 181 AID I n t r o d u c t i o n 181 A. The H i s t o r y of the P h e n o m e n o n of I n t e r n a t i o n a l 184 D e v e l o p m e n t Aid 1. I d e a l i s m of the I m m e d i a t e P o s t w a r P e r i o d 184 2. The T r u m a n D o c t r i n e : C o n t e n t and E f f e c t s 186 3. The F i r s t D e v e l o p m e n t D e c a d e 188 a. The D e c o l o n i z a t i o n P r o c e s s 188 b. F i n a n c i a l Aid as the P r i n c i p a l N e e d 189 c. P r e f e r e n c e for B i l a t e r a l Aid 191 4. Th e S e c o n d D e v e l o p m e n t D e c a d e 192 a. The C h a n g e d I n t e r n a t i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t of D e v e l o p m e n t 192 C o o p e r a t i o n b. G l o b a l R e s p o n s e s 193 c. S e a r c h for a C o h e r e n t B a s i s of D e v e l o p m e n t C o o p e r a t i o n 195 B. G e n e r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Aid P e r f o r m a n c e of the 197

D e v e l o p m e n t A s s i s t a n c e C o m m i t t e e 1. Th e D e v e l o p m e n t A s s i s t a n c e C o m m i t t e e 197 2. M e t h o d o l o g y 199 3. M a i n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the P e r i o d 1 9 6 3 - 1 9 7 7 201 a. The F l o w of F i n a n c i a l R e s o u r c e s 202 b. The F l o w of O f f i c i a l D e v e l o p m e n t A s s i s t a n c e 203

a. The R e a l V a l u e o f ' A i d 206

b. Aid F l o y s and CNP 207

c. Aid in R e l a t i o n to B u d g e t a r y E x p e n d i t u r e s 208

C o n c l u s i o n 211

C H A P T E R VII THE R A T I O N A L A CTOR A P P R O A C H IN THE AREA 213 OF D E V E L O P M E N T C O O P E R A T I O N

I n t r o d u c t i o n 213

A. The N a t u r e of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l G o o d of D e v e l o p m e n t Aid 214

1. R a t i o n a l e for D e v e l o p m e n t Aid 214 a. The A l t r u i s t i c M o t i v e of Aid A l l o c a t i o n 214 b. The F o r e i g n P o l i c y M o t i v e of Aid A l l o c a t i o n 217 b.1. U.S. F o r e i g n Aid O b j e c t i v e s 218 b.2. E u r o p e a n F o r e i g n Aid O b j e c t i v e s 220 c. The M i x e d N a t u r e of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l G o o d 221 of D e v e l o p m e n t Aid 2. B i l a t e r a l v e r s u s M u l t i l a t e r a l D e v e l o p m e n t Aid 224 B. E m p i r i c a l A s s e s s m e n t of the M o d e l s 234 1. O l s o n ' s P u b l i c G oods M o d e l 234 2. R u g g i e ' s I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o o p e r a t i o n M o d e l 239 C o n c l u s i o n 243

C. R e - a s s e s s m e n t of the Aid P e r f o r m a n c e of DAC C o u n t r i e s 244 1. R e l e v a n c e of G e n u i n e D e v e l o p m e n t A s s i s t a n c e 244 a. Aid S h a r e to L o u - i n c o m e C o u n t r i e s 245 b. A i d - t y i n g S t a t u s 248 c. A C o m p o s i t e I n d e x of Aid P e r f o r m a n c e 250 2. The C h a n g i n g R e l a t i o n s u i t h D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s 253 a. P o l i t i c a l C o m m i t m e n t s 253 b. E c o n o m i c P r o g r e s s of s o m e D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s 256 c. The R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n T r a d e and Aid V o l u m e 257

4. The A i d - g i v i n g C a p a c i t y 269

a. Aid and GNP G r o w t h 269

b. Aid and G N P p e r c a p i t a 270

C o n c l u s i o n 274

T abl e T a ble T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T abl e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T able T a b l e T abl e T able T able II-1 M a j o r S o u r c e s of F o r e i g n P o l i c y IV-1 T y p o l o g y of P u b l i c G o o d s ( n o n - r i v a l n e s s ) I V - 2 T y p o l o g y of P u b l i c G o o d s ( n o n - e x c l u s i o n ) IV-3 R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n C a t e g o r i e s of I n t e r n a t i o n a l G o o d s and I n t e r n a t i o n a l A r r a n g e m e n t s V-1 E q u i l i b r i u m C o n d i t i o n s for P u b l i c G o o d O u t p u t 1/1 — 1 The F l o w of F i n a n c i a l R e s o u r c e s to D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s and M u l t i l a t e r a l A g e n c i e s (DAC C o u n t r i e s ) 1/1-2 D A C ODA V o l u m e in Real T e r m s 1/1-3 I n c r e a s e s in OD A at C u r r e n t a n d R e a l P r i c e s ( 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 7 )

V I - 4 Aid and O t h e r P u b l i c Sect o r E x p e n d i t u r e s (1973) VII-1 N e t F l o w s of M u l t i l a t e r a l and B i l a t e r a l D e v e l o p m e n t A s s i s t a n c e to L e s s D e v e l o p e d C o u n t r i e s and M u l t i l a t e r a l A g e n c i e s (DAC C o u n t r i e s ) V I I - 2 N e t F l o w s of the DAC M e m b e r s ' T o t a l O f f i c i a l A s s i s t a n c e to D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s and M u l t i l a t e r a l A g e n c i e s V11 — 3 N e t F l o w s of the D A C M e m b e r s * B i l a t e r a l and M u l t i l a t e r a l D e v e l o p m e n t A s s i s t a n c e to D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s and M u l t i l a t e r a l A g e n c i e s V I I - 4 An E m p i r i c a l T e s t of O l s o n ' s M o d e l ( 1 9 6 3 - 1 9 6 5 ) V I 1-5 An E m p i r i c a l Tes t of O l s o n ' s M o d e l ( 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 7 )

100

103 136 167 202 204 207 209 226 60 228 229 236 237

240 241 242 245 246 247 249 251 252 254 255 256 257 258 259 ( O l s o n ' s M o d e l ) An E m p i r i c a l T e s t of R u g g i e ' s R o d e l ( 1 9 6 3 - 1 9 6 5 ) An E m p i r i c a l Test, of R u g g i e ' s M o d e l (1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 7 ) D e v e l o D m e n t A s s i s t a n c e C o r r e l a t i o n s ( R u g g i e ' s M o d e l ) ODA C o m m i t m e n t s to L o u - i n c o m e C o u n t r i e s (1970 and 1977) S h a r e of D o n o r ' s ODA C o m m i t m e n t s to L o u - i n c o m e D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s (1977) S h a r e of D o n o r ' s C o m m i t m e n t s to L L D C s C o m p a r a t i v e P e r f o r m a n c e of U n t i e d Aid ( 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 7 ) I ndex of Aid P e r f o r m a n c e ( 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 7 ) I n d e x of Aid P e r f o r m a n c e (1978) Aid to F o r m e r D e p e n d e n c i e s G e o g r a p h i c D i s t r i b u t i o n of B i l a t e r a l Aid F l o w s of F o r m e r C o l o n i a l P o w e r s (1965, 1971, 1977) R e p a r a t i o n P a y m e n t s N e t D i s b u r s e m e n t s of C o n c e s s i o n a l A s s i s t a n c e by O P E C M e m b e r s DAC C o u n t r i e s E x p o r t s to L D C s S h are of L D C s in D o n o r ' s E x p o r t s C o m p a r e d u i t h D o n o r ' s ODA ( 1 9 6 4 - 1 9 6 6 , 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 7 )

T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T a b l e T able T a b l e a C h a n g e in D o n o r ' s V o l u m e P e r f o r m a n c e

V 1 1 -2 3 E v o l u t i o n of ODA u i t h i n DAC ODA ( 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 7 ) 264 V I I - 2 4 R e l a t i v e DAC Aid S h a r e s C o m p a r e d to 266 R e l a t i v e GNP V I I - 2 5 R e l a t i v e S h a r e s of O D A g and OD A^ C o m p a r e d to 268 R e l a t i v e ODA V I 1-26 G r o w t h of GNP and ODA V o l u m e ( 1 9 6 0 - 1 9 7 7 ) 270 V I I - 2 7 C o m p a r a t i v e A i d - g i v i n g P e r f o r m a n c e ( 1 9 6 3 - 1 9 6 5 ) 271 V I I - 2 8 C o m p a r a t i v e A i d - g i v i n g P e r f o r m a n c e ( 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 7 ) 272

F i g u r e II-1 G a i n s from I n t e r n a t i o n a l T r a d e 45 ( S m a l l - C o u n t r y Case) F i g u r e 111 —1 E v a l u a t i o n C u r v e s ( S mall C o u n t r y - B i g C o u n t r y ) 83 F i g u r e IV-1 B o x - d i a g r a m of P u b l i c G o o d s 106 F i g u r e IV/—2 T h e C o u r n o t E q u i l i b r i u m 117 F i g u r e I V - 3 P o s s i b l e C o u r n o t L i n e s 119 F i g u r e II/-4 The L i n d a h l E q u i l i b r i u m 120 F i g u r e IV-5 A C o m p a r i s o n of the C o u r n o t E q u i l i b r i u m 121 and the L i n d a h l E q u i l i b r i u m F i g u r e IV-6 B o x - d i a o r a m of I n t e r n a t i o n a l G o o d s 128 F i g u r e I/-1 P u b l i c Good R e a c t i o n F u n c t i o n for O n e 153

C o u n t r y

F i g u r e V-2 T y p e s of R e a c t i o n C u r v e s 154

F i g u r e V - 3 Th e E f f e c t of the P r o d u c t i o n P o s s i b i l i t y 155 on the R e a c t i o n C u r v e

F i g u r e V - 4 The E f f e c t of the C o u r n o t Line on the 156 R e a c t i o n C u r v e F i g u r e V-5 R e a c t i o n P r o c e s s b e t w e e n T w o C o u n t r i e s 157 F i g u r e \l- 6 P u b l i c G o o d E q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n T w o C o u n t r i e s 158 F i g u r e V-7 The E f f e c t of D i f f e r e n t P r e f e r e n c e F u n c t i o n s 159 on the R e a c t i o n P r o c e s s F i g u r e V - 8 The E f f e c t of D i f f e r e n t F a c t o r E n d o w m e n t s on 160 the R e a c t i o n P r o c e s s F i g u r e V-9 P u b l i c Goo d E q u i l i b r i u m (Xq ^ X q i0* ) ^ ) 162

F i g u r e V - 1 1 P u b l i c G o o d E q u i l i b r i u m (X^ ^ Xg,° 0|$ ) 164 F i g u r e V - 1 2 P u b l i c G o o d E q u i l i b r i u m (Xg ) X®, ° *^) 165 F i g u r e V - 1 3 R u g g i e ' s M o d e l 172 F i g u r e V - 1 4 C o m b i n a t i o n of N a t i o n a l and I n t e r n a t i o n a l 175 A r r a n g e m e n t s F i g u r e V-15 The I m p a c t of I n e q u a l i t y of N a t i o n a l 177 R e s o u r c e s F i g u r e VI-1 DAC OD A N e t D i s b u r s e m e n t s 204 F i g u r e V I - 2 DA C F l o w s as P e r c e n t a g e of GNP ( 1 9 7 3 - 1 9 7 8 ) 205 F i g u r e VII-1 D A C ODA, ODA g, O D A ^ F l o w s as P e r c e n t a g e s of 226

G N P ( 1 9 6 3 - 1 9 7 8 )

F i g u r e V I I - 2 S h a r e of M a j o r D o n o r s in DAC O D A 265 ( 1 9 6 3 - 1 9 6 5 and 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 7 )

I N T R O D U C T I O N

1. P u r p o s e of the R e s e a r c h

E x p l a n a t i o n is c o n s i d e r e d a f u n d a m e n t a l task in s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . O f t e n c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k s are u s e d to a c h i e v e this task and c o n ­ s e q u e n t l y , to s t i m u l a t e p r o g r e s s in f u n d a m e n t a l k n o w l e d g e . The I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s s c h o l a r s h a v e s o m e t i m e s t r ied to c a p t u r e the b a s i c f e a t u r e s of the d i s c i p l i n e i n t o m o d e l s or t r i e d to rela te a s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m to a s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m .

A l t h o u g h the c o r e of any s o c i a l s c i e n c e can be e a s i l y e x t r a c t e d , its s c o p e and o r g a n i z a t i o n are o ften less d i s t i n c t i v e . Th e l i t e r a ­ ture on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s has n e v e r been d o m i n a t e d by any g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s c o n c e r n i n g t he d i m e n s i o n s of the s u b j e c t or the a p p r o p r i a t e m o d e of a n a l y s i s . The s p e c i f i c n a t u r e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , i.e., the study of a c t o r s and a c t i v i t i e s a f f e c t i n g the

b e h a v i o u r of the u n i t s i n t o w h i c h the i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s t e m is d i v i d e d , m a k e s a s c i e n t i f i c a n a l y s i s in thi s d i s c i p l i n e not an e a s y task.

S t u d i e s in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s o f t e n f ocus on h i s t o r i c a l e x p l a ­ n a t i o n s of the i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o u r of a c t o r s a n d / o r a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s tem, w h i c h o n l y i m p l y m o d e s t a n a l y t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n . A l t h o u g h the e x p l a n a t i o n of s i n g l e f a c t s is a r a t h e r i m p o r t a n t task in this field , it does n o t a l w a y s s p i l l over i n t o the m o r e a n a l y t i c a l f r a m e w o r k of study. T h e r e f o r e , in o r d e r to add some r i g o u r to the s t u d y of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , m o d e l s f r o m o t h e r s o c i a l s c i e n c e s h a v e been i n t r o d u c e d . O f t e n it has b e e n a s s u m e d t h a t a t h e o r e t i c a l s i m p l i f i c a t i o n can p r o v e to be p r o d u c t i v e in s c i e n t i f i c a n a l y s i s : this can a l s o be said for a n a l y s i s in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . By c o n c e n t r a t i n g on r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n n a t i o n - s t a t e s , some s c h o l a r s h a v e c l e a r l y h o p e d to be able to d e v e l o p a m o d e l of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s that w o u l d c a p t u r e the b a s i c f e a t u r e s of the d i s c i p l i n e . The e x a m p l e of e c o n o ­

m i c s has been i n f l u e n t i a l in e n c o u r a g i n g such a m b i t i o n s . E v e n when t h e o r e t i c a l g o a l s of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s ' s c h o l a r s can n e i t h e r be as e x p l i c i t n o r as a m b i t i o u s as t h o s e of e c o n o m i s t s , an a n a l y s i s of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s in t h e s e ter ms is s o m e t i m e s b e l i e v e d to be a n e c e s s a r y and e n t i r e l y l e g i t i m a t e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of the reality.

U e a c k o u l e d g e the f a c t th at t h e r e are s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s in any t r a n s f e r of a n a l y t i c a l t o o l s a n d m o d e s of r e a s o n i n g , d e v e l o p e d u i t h i n one d i s c i p l i n e , to a n o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e . O n e is o f t e n l i k e l y to o v e r l o o k s o m e c r u c i a l f e a t u r e s or p e c u l a r i t i e s of the n e w f i e l d w h i c h m a k e b a s i c c o n c e p t s r a t h e r less a p p l i c a b l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , e c o n o m i c r e a s o n i n g has a l r e a d y s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o n t r i b u t e d to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of n o n - e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s e s . In the t e r r a i n of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s e c o n o m i s t s have a l s o t r a n s f e r r e d c o n c e p t s and m o d e s of a n a l y s i s o r i g i n a l l y e l a ­ b o r a t e d f o r the p u r p o s e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g e c o n o m i c s . T h e e x t e n s i o n of the n e o - c l a s s i c a l r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m to the a r e a of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s has p r o v e d to be a p r o m i s i n g p a t h of a n a l y s i s in some i n s t a n c e s . The b a s i c c o n c e p t u a l s t r u c t u r e that w i l l be a p p l i e d in the p r e s e n t st udy, is the R a t i o n a l Acto r M o d e l . This m o d e l ha s o f t e n i l l u m i n a t e d some r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e s in the i n t e r a c t i o n a m o n g stat e s .

C e n t r a l to our s t u d y is the a s s e s s m e n t of the c a p a b i l i t y of the R a t i o n a l A c t o r A p p r o a c h to I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . T h i s is a b r o a d t o p i c and c o v e r a g e of the p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s can o n l y be s e l e c t i v e . Ue are o n l y i n t e r e s t e d in the s u b s e c t i o n of I n t e r ­ n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s t h a t d e a l s w i t h the b e h a v i o u r of n a t i o n - s t a t e s t o w a r d s i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n . H e n c e f o r t h , the w h o l e a n a l y s i s on p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g c o u n t r i e s , in w h i c h the s t u d y of c o n f l i c t c o n s t i t u t e s a c r u c i a l a s p e c t , d o e s n o t f o r m p a r t of the p r e s e n t work . Here, we w i l l o n l y i n v e s t i g a t e to w h a t e x t e n t the R a t i o n a l A c t o r A p p r o a c h can be u s e f u l and s u c c e s s f u l in e x p l a i n i n g the b e h a v i o u r of s t a t e s t o w a r d s i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n .

In r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r e has b e e n an i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t in the p o s s i b i l i t y of d e v e l o p i n g f o r m a l t h e o r i e s of p o l i t i c a l b e h a v i o u r in u h i c h the m a i n p r o p e r t i e s of p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s are d e r i v e d from a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t the b e h a v i o u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i n d i v i d u a l s , m u c h as m i c r o - e c o n o m i c t h e o r y a t t e m p t s to i n f e r p r o p o s i t i o n s a b o u t m a r k e t s f r o m s i m i l a r a s s u m p t i o n s . In p a r t i c u l a r , the p u b l i c c h o i c e t h e o r y has a p p e a r e d to be an e x t e n s i o n of the n e o - c l a s s i c a l r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m to the s u b j e c t of p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e . Our p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h m u s t then be f r a m e d u i t h i n the a t t e m p t s to s t i m u l a t e s c i e n t i f i c a n a l y s i s in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s w i t h the h e l p of the n e o - c l a s s i c ­ al r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m .

The p u b l i c c h o i c e t h e ory, u h i c h can be d e f i n e d as the e c o n o m i c s t u d y of n o n m a r k e t d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , or, s i m p l y the a p p l i c a t i o n of e c o n o m i c s to p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e , has c e r t a i n l y g iven a m o r e s c i e n t i f i c turn to the R a t i o n a l Acto r a p p r o a c h . Its b a s i c b e h a v i o u r a l p o s t u ­ late, as for e c o n o m i c s , is d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g by i n d i v i d u a l s who m a x i ­ m i z e t h e i r u t i l i t y f u n c t i o n u n d e r c o n s t r a i n t s , i.e., r a t i o n a l d e ­ c i s i o n - m a k i n g by i n d i v i d u a l s . A p u b l i c c h o i c e a n a l y s i s m a y vary f r o m p o s i t i v e to n o r m a t i v e f o r m u l a t i o n , f r o m pure t h e o r y to a p p l i c a ­ tions, f r o m h i g h l y m a t h e m a t i c a l a n a l y s i s to d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s . M o r e and m o r e s c h o l a r s take p u b l i c c h o i c e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s as the b a s i s of a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e u o r k f o r a n a l y z i n g i s s u e s in p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e . B r i e f l y , in m a n y i n s t a n c e s the p u b l i c c h o i c e t h e o r y is a s s u m e d to be v a l u a b l e as a h e l p to s y s t e m a t i c thoug h t .

In the p r e s e n t s t u d y ue o n l y d e a l u i t h t h a t p a r t of publ i c c h o i c e t h e o r y u h i c h c o n c e n t r a t e s on the p o s s i b l e b i a s e s in the o p e ­ r a t i o n of the c o l l e c t i v e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s , i.e., the p r o b l e m s u h i c h m a y r e s u l t f r o m the p u r s u i t of i n d i v i d u a l r a t i o n a l i t y in a gro up . O n e p o s s i b l e b a s i s for such a t h e o r y is the e c o n o m i s t s ' c o n ­ c e p t of p u b l i c goods. In fact, it has been the b a s i s f o r an i m p o r ­ t a n t b o d y of e c o n o m i c l i t e r a t u r e on the f u n c t i o n of the sta te. A s u b s t a n t i a l set of p r i n c i p l e s h a s been d e v e l o p e d that has p r o v e d to be of i n t e r e s t to e c o n o m i s t s and o t h e r s c o n c e r n e d u i t h the a n a l y s i s

of p u b l i c p o l i c y . It u i l l be i n d i c a t e d that the e x i s t e n c e of p u b ­ lic g o o d s m a y lead to p r o b l e m s of c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n in a s y s t e m of d e c e n t r a l i z e d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g . U i t h i n the g e n e r a l f r a m e w o r k of the n e o - c l a s s i c a l r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m ue u i l l thus a d o p t a p u b l i c g o o d s p e r s p e c t i v e to o u r a n a l y s i s of the b e h a v i o u r of s t a t e s t o w a r d s i n ­ t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n . Flore s p e c i f i c a l l y , ue u i l l take M a n c u r O l s o n ’s p u b l i c g o o d s t h e o r y as the m a i n r e f e r e n c e for our oun a n a l y s i s . O l s o n a r g u e s t h a t m a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n s p r o v i d e p u b l i c g o o d s to t h e i r m e m b e r s . H o u e v e r , f o l l o u i n g m o a t of the e c o n o m i c l i t e r a t u r e , he a lso a r g u e s t h a t the a b i l i t y of g o v e r n m e n t s to s u p p l y s u c h g o o d s is b a s e d on t h e i r a b i l i t y to tax. The m a i n f o c u s of the t h e o r y of c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n is on the c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r u h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s or g r o ups, o f ten j o i n e d in v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s , can c o o r d i n a t e t h e i r a c t i o n s to a c h i e v e c o m m o n b e n e f i t s or can o v e r c o m e the d i f f i c u l t y of r a i s i n g r e s o u r c e s v o l u n t a r i l y . T h i s p r o v o k e s the q u e s t i o n a b o u t ho u n o n ­ g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s can p r o v i d e p u b l i c g o o d s s u c c e s s f u l l y . The c o n c l u s i o n s all c e n t e r a r o u n d the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n g r o u p - s i z e and the a c t u a l p r o v i s i o n of the p u b l i c good and on th e c o s t - s h a r i n g u i t h i n the s m a l l - s i z e d grou p.

Ue k n o u t hat the e c o n o m i c t h e o r y of p u b l i c g o o d s has a l r e a d y b e e n e x t e n d e d to the s u b j e c t of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . Here, our m a i n i n t e r e s t is in the a p p l i c a t i o n of O l s o n ’s s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p t h e o r y to i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e s i m i l a r i t i e s b e ­ t w e e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s and s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p s m a k e t his t h e o r y a m e n a b l e to a p p l i c a t i o n to I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . By t r a n s p o s i n g the a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t g u i d e the a c t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l s to the a n a l y s i s of the i n t e r p l a y of s t a t e s , O l s o n and o t h e r s h a v e s h o w n t h a t the p r o b l e m s of c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n a m o n g n a t i o n - s t a t e s are e x a c t l y the s ame as in the c a s e of i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e e x t e n s i o n of this p a r t of p u b l i c c h o i c e t h e o r y to the a n a l y s i s of the p r o b l e m s of c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s has a l r e a d y t h r o w n

n e u l i g h t on som e p r o b l e m s of a l l i a n c e s , l a b o u r u n i o n s o r w o r l d o r g a n i z a t i o n s ih g e n e r a l . It m a y a l s o p r o v e r e l e v a n t when t h i n k i n g a b o u t the r e a l i z a t i o n of c o m m o n i n t e r e s t s in the i n t e r n a t i o n a l sy s tem.

F o r our l a s t p a r t of this s t u d y ue u i l l a s s e s s the r e l e v a n c e and the s u c c e s s f u l n e s s of the R a t i o n a l A c t o r A p p r o a c h and the p u b ­ lic g o o d s p e r s p e c t i v e to the a n a l y s i s of the b e h a v i o u r of s t a t e s t o w a r d s d e v e l o p m e n t c o o p e r a t i o n . F o c u s u i l l be on the a p p l i c a b i ­ lity of e c o n o m i c t h e o r y to the a n a l y s i s of the aid p e r f o r m a n c e by a n u m b e r of d o n o r c o u n t r i e s w i t h i n a s p e c i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n . A c c o r d ­ ing to this a p p r o a c h , the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the s i z e of a d o n o r and the aid p e r f o r m a n c e is a c r u c i a l one in the a n a l y s i s of the b e ­ h a v i o u r of s t a t e s t o w a r d s d e v e l o p m e n t c o o p e r a t i o n .

The c o n c l u s i o n s w i l l p o i n t to some of the p r o b l e m s i n h e r e n t to s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s in general, as well as to some of the p r o b l e m s in a t r a n s f e r of a n a l y t i c a l t ool s and m o d e s of r e a s o n i n g f rom e c o n o m i c s to I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . A l ­ t h o u g h the R a t i o n a l A c t o r a s s u m p t i o n s h a v e p r o v e n to be f r u i t f u l in s o m e s t a n d a r d m o d e l s and t h e o r i e s in e c o n o m i c s c i e n c e as well as in p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e , p e c u l i a r i t i e s in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s can m a k e them s o m e t i m e s less i l l u m i n a t i n g than one is i n c l i n e d to think.

2. S c o p e an d O r g a n i z a t i o n t)f the R e s e a r c h

H a v i n g d e s c r i b e d the p u r p o s e of the r e s e a r c h , ue u i l l n o u p r e s e n t its s c o p e and p r a c t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . In the f i r s t part

( C h a p t e r I a n d II) ue u i l l i n t r o d u c e t h o s e p a r t s of the t h e o r y of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s w h i c h w i l l be t a k e n as the m a i n p o i n t s of r e f e r e n c e and c o m p a r i s o n f o r the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the e c o n o m i c t h e o r y i n t o the d i s c i p l i n e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . In s p i t e of the r e l a t i v i t y of any m o d e l in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , it w i l l be a r g u e d t h a t a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k can p r o v e u s e f u l . The f i r s t c h a p t e r w i l l d e a l m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h s o m e of t h e s e c o n ­ c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k s . A l t h o u g h m a n y t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s h a v e been p r o p o s e d to a n a l y z e I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , d i s c u s s i o n w i l l be l i m i t e d to a p r e s e n t a t i o n of two o v e r a r c h i n g f r a m e w o r k s , i.e., the c l a s s i c a l m o d e l an d the c o m p l e x i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e m o d e l . B e c a u s e th e tw o m o d e l s a p p l y to d i f f e r i n g s i t u a t i o n s , s c o p e s or d o m a i n s of b e h a v i o u r , t h e y w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d as c o m p l e m e n t i n g e a c h othe r. A c o m b i n a t i o n of b o t h m o d e l s m a y p r o v i d e the c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k for a n a l y z i n g i s s u e s in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . Then it u i l l d e p e n d on t h e f o c u s of the s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h s u b j e c t w h i c h m o d e l is to be p r e f e r r e d as the b a s i c s t r u c t u r e .

In the s e c o n d s e c t i o n of the f i r s t c h a p t e r we p r e s e n t the s p e ­ c i f i c m o d e l t h a t we w i l l e m p l o y in our r e s e a r c h . The m a i n a s s u m p ­ t i o n s of the R a t i o n a l A c t o r A p p r o a c h w i l l be e x p l a i n e d . R e f e r e n c e w i l l a l s o be m a d e to the p o s s i b l e r e l a x a t i o n s of the R a t i o n a l Acto r M o d e l as to the c o n t e n t of the u t i l i t y f u n c t i o n as w e l l as to the

c o n c e p t of r a t i o n a l i t y . F o r the p u r p o s e of o u r oun r e s e a r c h this n e o - c l a s s i c a l r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m u i l l be t r a n s p o s e d o u t s i d e e c o ­ n o m i c s to the f i e l d of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . We u i l l also

t r a n s p o s e i n d i v i d u a l r a t i o n a l i t y to c o l l e c t i v e r a t i o n a l i t y , in the s e n s e of a c o n s i s t e n c y of c h o i c e of n a t i o n - s t a t e s u i t h i n c o n s t r a i n t s .

A c c o r d i n g to the R a t i o n a l A c t o r Model, 'size' is b e l i e v e d to

be a m a j o r e x p l a n a t o r y s o u r c e of the f o r e i g n p o l i c y of a n a t i o n - s t a t e . T h e r e f o r e , in C h a p t e r II ue w i l l try to s i t u a t e our a n a l y s i s in the w i d e r f r a m e w o r k of the s t u d y of s m a l l s t a t e s in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e ­ l a t i o n s . The c o n c i s e s u m m a r y of the e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e on s m a l l s t a t e s w i l l i n d i c a t e the l i t t l e r e l e v a n c e of m o s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s c h e m e s to the s t u d y of the b e h a v i o u r of s t a t e s t o w a r d s i n t e r n a t i o n ­ al c o o p e r a t i o n . M o s t of t h e s e s t u d i e s are r o o t e d in the a n a l y s i s of p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g s t a t e s , i.e., an i m p o r t a n t s e c t i o n of i n ­ t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s w h i c h d o e s not f o r m p a r t of our p r e s e n t study. M o r e o v e r , the l i t e r a t u r e w i l l a l s o i n d i c a t e the la ck of a t h e o r e t i c ­ ally d e f i n e d term, 'sma l l s t a t e ' , s i m i l a r to the e c o n o m i c c o n c e p t of the s m a l l s t a t e as a p r i c e - t a k e r in the i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t .

It w i l l be a r g u e d that K e o h a n e ' s t h e o r e t i c a l d e f i n i t i o n of the s m a l l s t a t e as a 's y s t e m - t a k e r ' ca n be c o n c e i v e d as the o n l y u s e f u l c o n ­ c e p t in the p r e s e n t stud y.

W h e r e a s the f i r s t p a r t a n n o u n c e s the s u b j e c t f r o m an I n t e r n a t i o ­ nal R e l a t i o n s ' p e r s p e c t i v e , the s e c o n d p a r t i n t r o d u c e s the a p p l i c a ­ t ion of e c o n o m i c s to I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . T h e s e c o n d p a r t ( C h a p t e r I I I - I V - V ) d e a l s w i t h the a c t u a l p r e s e n t a t i o n and s u b s e q u e n t e l a b o r a t i o n of the e c o n o m i c t h e o r y of c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n an d with the r e l e v a n c e of t his e c o n o m i c t h e o r y to I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . I w i l l e n g a g e in an e n t e r p r i s e of t r a n s f e r r i n g and a p p l y i n g the b a s i c c o n c e p t u a l s t r u c t u r e of the R a t i o n a l A c t o r M o d e l to I n t e r n a ­ t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . Ue will i n t r o d u c e a p u b l i c g o o d s t h e o r y in o r d e r to e x p l a i n the b e h a v i o u r of s t a t e s t o w a r d s i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n w h e n a p u b l i c g o o d is p r o d u c e d . B e c a u s e the i n t r o d u c t i o n of this p u b l i c g o o d s m o d e l w i l l i n d i c a t e some f a i l u r e s of d e c e n t r a l i z e d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , it m a y a l s o i l l u m i n a t e p o s s i b l e p r o b l e m s of c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n a m o n g stat e s .

In C h a p t e r III ue p r e s e n t O l s o n ' s e c o n o m i c t h e o r y of g r o u p s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e s i m i l a r i t y of the a s s u m p t i o n s of no c o e r c i o n and n o n - e x c l u s i o n of O l s o n ' s s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p t h e o r y and the c o n t e x t of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s t e m m a k e s the a p p l i c a t i o n of s u c h a t h e o r y a p r o m i s i n g path for r e s e a r c h . O n e of the m a i n c o n c l u s i o n s of O l s o n ' s t h e o r y c o n c e r n s the c o s t - s h a r i n g w i t h i n s m a l l - s i z e d g r o u p s . T h i s has led O l s o n to the f o r m u l a t i o n of the h y p o t h e s i s of the e x p l o i t a t i o n of the bi g c o u n t r i e s by the s m a l l c o u n t r i e s . H i s t h e o r y has b e e n t e s t e d and v/alidated at the l e v e l of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s for d e f e n c e a l l i a n c e s . So me of the p o s i t i v e o u t c o m e s of the a s e of O l s o n ' s p u b l i c g o o d s t h e o r y to I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s has s t i m u l a t e d us to s e a r c h f o r f u r t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , it w i l l b e c o m e c l e a r thet few c r i t i c i s m s h a v e a c t u a l l y d a m a g e d the c o r e of O l s o n ' s t h e o r y . O l s o n ' s c o n c e r n is fo r th e c o n s e q u e n c e s of i n d e p e n d e n t p r o v i s i o n of the p u b l i c good, w h e r e a s m a n y f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t s have t a k e n d i f f e r e n t f r a m e w o r k s , a s s u m i n g in one w a y or a n o t h e r c o e r c i o n , a t a x i n g s c h e m e or an o v e r a r c h i n g c a p a c i t y . Th e f o u r t h c h a p t e r w i l l p r o v i d e some c o n c e p t u a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s to O l s o n ' s t h e o r y of c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n . We w i l l d i s c u s s some m a j o r a s p e c t s of the a p p l i c a t i o n of this t h e o r y to I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . F i r s t , we w i l l try to c l a r i f y the c o n c e p t of p u b l i c - g o o d as it has b e e n d e v e l o p e d in e c o n o m i c s . Ue w i l l p a y s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n to the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the m i x e d p u b l i c g o o d s to the a n a l y s i s . S e c o n d l y , we w i l l e x p l a i n the m o d e l of g r o u p b e h a v i o u r in the p r e s e n c e of a p u b l i c g o o d on w h i c h O l s o n has b a s e d his t h e o r y , i.e., the n o n c o o p e ­ r a t i v e C o u r n o t m o d e l of i n d e p e n d e n t m a x i m i z i n g b e h a v i o u r . T hir d l y , we w i l l e l a b o r a t e on the r e l e v a n c e and u s e f u l n e s s of the p u b l i c g o o d c o n c e p t to a n a l y z i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n . A s u g g e s t i v e f o u r f o l d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of i n t e r n a t i o n a l g o o d s is d i s c u s s e d , w h i c h is sa id to r e v e a l a b e t t e r i n d i c a t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n and the a c t u a l p r o v i s i o n of an i n t e r n a t i o n ­ al g o o d than the r e l a t i o n s h i p O l s o n ' s t h e o r y a s s u m e s . It w i l l be

g o o d s w i t h d i f f e r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s an d t h a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l g oods m a y be d e a l t w i t h in d i f f e r i n g f r a m e w o r k s of c o o p e r a t i o n .

In the l ast c h a p t e r of this p u r e l y t h e o r e t i c a l p a r t ue uill i n ­ t r o d u c e tuo m a i n t h e o r e t i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s to the a n a l y s i s of p r o b ­ lems of c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . Fi rst, ue u i l l a r g u e that O l s o n ' s e x p l o i t a t i o n t h e s i s can be q u a l i f i e d by the i n t r o d u c t i o n of d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e f e r e n c e s of c o u n t r i e s t o u a r d s the c o n s u m p t i o n of a p u b l i c good . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e in p r e f e r e n c e s m a y r e s u l t in a d i f f e r e n t b u r d e n - s h a r i n g of the p r o d u c t i o n of the p u b l i c good. To d e m o n s t r a t e this q u a l i f i c a t i o n ue u i l l d i s c u s s the e q u i l i ­ b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s f o r the p u b l i c g o o d o u t p u t u i t h the h e l p of the r e a c t i o n p r o c e s s m o d e l . The s e c o n d t h e o r e t i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n u i d e n s the a n a l y s i s of p u b l i c g o o d s in the a r e a of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s by i n t r o d u c i n g a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s to a c h i e v e a c o u n t r y ' s o b j e c t i v e . The i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n m o d e l i n s p i r e d by R u g g i e is a j o i n t p r o d u c t i o n scheme. T h i s u i l l c e r ­ t a i n l y add a m o r e n u a n c e d p e r s p e c t i v e of a c o u n t r y ' s b e h a v i o u r t o ­ u a r d s i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n . Also in this m o d e l , size is b e ­ l i e v e d to be an e x p l a n a t o r y s o u r c e of b e h a v i o u r . R u g g i e ' s m a i n c o n c l u s i o n p u r p o r t s an i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t u e e n the r a t i o of s o u r c e s s p e n t on i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s o v e r r e s o u r c e s s pent on n a t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s and the t o t a l l e v e l of r e s o u r c e s u s e d to a t t a i n a s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e .

C o n c e r n i n g the b e h a v i o u r of s t a tes, O l s o n b a s e s his a n a l y s i s

on the c o n s e q u e n c e s of the e x i s t e n c e of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l p u b l i c good, u h i l e R u g g i e ' s a n a l y s i s is c e n t e r e d on the i m p a c t of the r e t u r n s to s c a l e in the p r o d u c t i o n of n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s in o r d e r to p u r s u e an o b j e c t i v e . O l s o n ' s p u b l i c g o o d s m o d e l as uell as R u g g i e ' s j o i n t p r o d u c t i o n s c h e m e c o n s i d e r the size of a c o u n t r y as an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in e x p l a n a t i o n of a s t a t e ' s b e h a v i o u r t o u a r d s i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n . Both m o d e l s u i l l be t e s t e d in the area of d e v e l o p m e n t c o o p e r a t i o n .

Th e l a s t tuo c h a p t e r s J i l l d e a l m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y u i t h the

F o r e i g n Aid s e c t o r . I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t Aid is t ak en as that a r e a in u h i c h the a s s u m p t i o n s and t o o l s of the R a t i o n a l Actor

A p p r o a c h u i l l be t e s ted. In the s i x t h c h a p t e r ue u i l l d e s c r i b e the h i s t o r y of the P h e n o m e n o n of I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t Aid s inc e UU II and u i l l p r e s e n t some of the g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the aid p e r f o r m a n c e by a s p e c i f i c d o n o r g r oup , i.e., the D e v e l o p m e n t A s s i s t a n c e C o m m i t t e e .

T h e l a s t an d f i n a l c h a p t e r u i l l m a k e u s e of this d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s to a s s e s s the aid p e r f o r m a n c e by the D e v e l o p m e n t A s s i s t a n c e C o m m i t t e e for the p e r i o d 1 9 6 3 - 1 9 7 7 . T h i s is d o n e u i t h r e f e r e n c e to the a s s u m p t i o n s an d t o o l s e x p l a i n e d and e l a b o r a t e d in the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s . An i m p o r t a n t s e c t i o n u i l l be d e d i c a t e d to a d i s c u s s i o n of the n a t u r e of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l go od of d e v e l o p m e n t aid. It u i l l be c l e a r t h a t the o b j e c t i v e s and m e a n s of the f o r e i g n aid

a l l o c a t i o n by d o n o r s c o n t a i n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p u b l i c and p r i v a t e g o o d e l e m e n t s . It u i l l be p u r p o r t e d that f r o m a c o n c e p t u a l s t a n d p o i n t an a p p l i c a t i o n of a p u b l i c g o o d m o d e l to the a r e a of d e v e l o p m e n t aid p o s e s a n u m b e r of p r o b l e m s . The e m p i r i c a l a s s e s s m e n t of b o t h O l s o n ' s p u b l i c g o o d m o d e l and R u g g i e ' s j o i n t p r o d u c t i o n s c h e m e fo r the p e r i o d 1 9 6 3 - 1 9 7 7 u i l l tend to i n d i c a t e t h a t the aid p e r f o r m a n c e of th e d o n o r c o u n t r i e s as re­ g a r d s the ai d v o l u m e as u e l l as the c o m p o s i t i o n of the aid f l o w s h a v e c h a n g e d o v e r the p e r i o d c o n c e r n e d . Size u i l l t e n d to be l e s s a d e t e r m i n i n g e x p l a n a t o r y f a c t o r in th e b e h a v i o u r of s t a t e s t o u a r d s i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t c o o p e r a t i o n .

In v i e w of the r e s u l t s of the e m p i r i c a l t e s t s the aid p e r f o r m a n c e of the D e v e l o p m e n t A s s i s t a n c e C o m m i t t e e u i l l be r e - a s s e s s e d . Some r e a s o n s u i l l be e x p l o r e d f o r the d e p a r t u r e f r o m the p r e d i c t e d o u t ­ c o m e s of O l s o n ' s and R u g g i e ' s m o d e l s , as to the a s s o c i a t i o n b e t u e e n the s i z e of a d o n o r and the f o r e i g n aid b e h a v i o u r . T h i s f inal d i s ­ c u s s i o n u i l l c l e a r l y r e v e a l the d i f f i c u l t y of m a i n t a i n i n g and testing s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b o t h m o d e l s , i.e., the R a t i o n a l A c t o r A p p r o a c h and th e p u b l i c g o o d s m o d e l f o r the a r e a of d e v e l o p m e n t c o o p e r a t i o n .

C H A P T E R I A N A L Y S I S IN I N T E R N A T I O N A L R E L A T I O N S : M O D E L S AND H Y P O T H E S E S I n t r o d u c t i o n S c i e n c e and the g r o w t h of s c i e n c e is s a i d to s t a r t u i t h p r o b ­ lems and to be d i r e c t e d to p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g u n d e r t a k i n g s in o r de r to o b t a i n e x p l a n a t o r y t h e o r i e s with, p o s s i b l y , p r e d i c t i v e b e h a ­ v i o u r (1). Su ch p r o b l e m s are to be a n a l y z e d f r o m a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e u o r k u h i c h e n a b l e s the a n a l y s t to r e l a t e a s c i e n t i f i c p r o b ­ lem to a p a r a d i g m (2). E x p l a n a t i o n s by p a r t i c u l a r a n a l y s t s o f t e n s h o w r e g u l a r and p r e d i c t a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , u h i c h r e f l e c t u n r e c o g n i z e d a s s u m p ­ t i o n s a b o u t the c h a r a c t e r of p u z z l e s , the c a t e g o r i e s in u hi ch p r o b l e m s s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d , the t y p e s of e v i d e n c e t ha t are r e ­ l e v a n t and the d e t e r m i n a n t s of o c c u r r e n c e s . B u n d l e s of su ch re­ l a t e d a s s u m p t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e b a s i c f r a m e s of r e f e r e n c e or c o n c e p ­ tual m o d e l s . T h e s e l a r g e l y i m p l i c i t c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l s h a v e s i g ­ n i f i c a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s for the c o n t e n t of the t h o u g h t of the a n a ­ lysts. T hus, b e c a u s e e x p l a n a t i o n is c o n s i d e r e d a f u n d a m e n t a l task in s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k s or m o d e l s are seen as h e l p ­ f u l a n a l y t i c a l t o o l s to a c h i e v e this t as k (3). S uc h m o d e l s give (1) See, for i n s t a n c e , Ku hn, T., L o g i c of D i s c o v e r y or P s y c h o l o g y of R e s e a r c h , in L a k a t o s , I. and M u s g r a v e , A. ( eds.), C r i t i c i s m and the G r o w t h of K n o w l e d g e . C a m b r i d g e : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19“? Q , pi 1-23; and P o p p e r , K., C o n j e c t u r e s and R e f u t a ­ t i o n s : the G r o w t h of K n o w l e d g e , L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e and Regan,

TWT.

(2) B l au g, PI., K u h n v e r s u s L a k a t o s , or P a r a d i g m s v e r s u s R e s e a r c h P r o g r a m s in the H i s t o r y of E c o n o m i c s , H i s t o r y of P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y , Vol. 7, 1976, p. 3 9 9 - 4 3 3 .

(3) H e m p e l , C .G ., A s p e c t s of S c i e n t i f i c E x p l a n a t i o n , N e w York: F r e e P r e s s , 1965; and N a g e l , E., P r o b l e m e n van b e g n p s - en t h e o r i e - v o r m i n g in de s o c i a l e w e t e n s c h a p p e n , in N a u t a , L . U . ( r e d . ) , H e t N e o p o s i t i v i s m e in de S o c i a l s U e t e n s c h a p p e n . A m s t e r d a m : Van G e n n e p , 1^73, p. ¿ 7- ^ 9 .

C 8 r t a i n n o t i o n s of u h i c h v a r i a b l e s are i m p o r t a n t . W i t h o u t such n o t i o n s ue u o u l d be c o n f r o n t e d by a b e u i l d e r i n g uorl d , n o t k n o u - ing to look f o r u h a t and u h e r e an d uhy. A l t h o u g h s i m p l i f i c a t i o n and o v e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n of such s c i e n t i f i c e n d e a v o u r s is a f u n d a ­ m e n t a l p r o b l e m of s o c i a l s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h (1), m o d e l s s t i l l s e rve as i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t s of d e p a r t u r e for an y a n a l y s i s . By e m p h a s i ­ z i n g c e r t a i n v a r i a b l e s , t hey m a y c a p t u r e the b a s i c f e a t u r e s and t r e n d s of the p r o b l e m , the a c t i v i t y , the b e h a v i o u r or the e v e n t b e i n g s t u d i e d

A l t h o u g h an y r e s e a r c h in s o c i a l s c i e n c e s s h o u l d f o l l o u this i d e a l p a t t e r n , the d e p t h and the o u t c o m e of s u c h an e n d e a v o u r is p a r t l y d e t e r m i n e d b y the s u b j e c t m a t t e r of the s p e c i f i c fie ld . H er e, ue are d e a l i n g u i t h the f i e l d of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , s t i l l a r a t h e r a m b i g u o u s d i s c i p l i n e (2). T im e and a g a i n m o d e l s h a v e b e e n e l a b o r a t e d to a n a l y z e and e x p l a i n e v e n t s and a c t i v i t i e s

(1)

For the concept of overdetermination, see Przewrski, A

•

and

Teune , H., The L o g i c of C o m p a r a t i v e S o c i a l I n q u i r y . N e w York: J o h n W i l e y and Sons Lt d., 1970. (2) S o m e a u t h o r s h a v e t r i e d to g i v e a c o n c i s e s u m m a r y of the p r o b ­ l em s of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . Ue m e n t i o n a feu c o n t r i ­ b u t i o n s : Alker, H.R. and B o ck , P.G., P r o p o s i t i o n s a b o u t I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , in R o b i n s o n , 3 . A . , P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e A n n u a l V o l u m e 3, 1972. H y v a r y n e n , R., M o n i s t i c a nd P l u r a l i s t i c I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s in S t u d y of I n t e r n a t l on a r T o T f H ™ ' T eu York: P r a e g a r P u b l i s h e r s ,

T5TT.

L i j p h a r t , A., I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n T h e o r y : G r e a t D e b a t e s and L e s s e r D e b a t e s , I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c i a l S c i e n c e J o u r n a l , Vol. 26-1, 1974, p. 11-21. P a l m e r , N., A O e s i q n for I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s R e s e a r c h . Scope, T h e o r y « M e t n o d s and R e l e v a n c e . E n q l e u o o d C l i f f s , N e u Y ork: P r e n t i c e H all, I n c . , 19^2.

in th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s t e m (1). So me t h e o r i e s h a v e b e e n e f f o r t s to p r o d u c e a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k in the f o r m of a set of e x p l a ­ n a t o r y h y p o t h e s e s w i t h i n w h i c h the w h o l e d i s c i p l i n e c o u l d be c a s - ted (2). O t h e r s h a v e b e e n l es s a m b i t i o u s and h a v e o n l y t r i e d to d e v i s e a r i g h t w a y of s t u d y i n g the p h e n o m e n a of w o r l d a f f a i r s , i. e., c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e o r i e s d e f i n e d as a set of q u e s t i o n s (3). (

₁

) Ue l i s t h e r e so me of the l i t e r a t u r e in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s w h i c h ha s c o n c e n t r a t e d on the s u m m a r y of t h e o r y - b u i l d i n g in th e d i s c i p l i n e : B u r t o n , 3. U., I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , ft G e n e r a l T h e o r y « C a m ­ b r i d g e , M a . : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1967. C o p l i n , U.D. and K e g l e y , C . U . , A n a l y z i n g I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a ­ t i o n s . N e w Y or k: P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , i § l S . G r o o m , A . 3. and M i t c h e l l , C .R ., I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s T h e o ­ ry : A B i b l i o g r a p h y . L o n d o n : F r a n c e s P i n t e r , 1978. H o f f m a n , S., C o n t e m p o r a r y T h e o r y in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , N e w York: P r e n t i c e H a l l, Inc., 1977. I b i d. , The S t a t e of U a r . N e w York: P r a e g e r P u b l i s h e r s , 1965. H o l s t i , K .3 ., I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s : A F r a m e w o r k for A n a ­ l y s i s . E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , N e w York: P r e n t i c e H all, inc., 19^7. K a p l a n , M., N e w A p p r o a c h e s to I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s . N e w Y ork: St. M a r t i n ' s P r e s s , 1968. K n o r r , K. and R o s e n a u , 3 . ( e d s . ) , C o n t e n d i n g A p p r o a c h e s to I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s , P T i n c e t o n : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969. T a y l o r , T., A p p r o a c h e s and T h e o r y in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , L o n d o n : L o n g m a n , 19 V ^ . (2) T h e ' r e a l i s t i c * t h e o r y of I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s , e l a b o r a t e d by M o r g e n t h a u , H., P o l i t i c s A m o n g N a t i o n s . The S t r u g g l e for P o w e r and P e a c e . N e w Y o rk : A. K n o p f , 1970, is a g o o d e x a m p l e of a g r a n d th eo r y . A ls o the p h i l o s o p h i e s of h i s t o r y by H e g e l , M a r x , S p r e n g l e r , T o y n b e e are t h e o r i e s d e f i n e d as a set of a n s w e r s . (3) T h e s y s t e m t h e o r y by K a p l a n , L i s k a ' s e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r y , or 5 n y d e r * s d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a p p r o a c h are e x a m p l e s of t h e o r i e s d e f i n e d as a set of q u e s t i o n s .

In the p r e s e n t s t u d y ue are n o t so m u c h i n t e r e s t e d in all t h a t the t h e o r y of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s h a s p r o d u c e d . H ere, ue o n l y w a n t to i n d i c a t e t h a t the l i t e r a t u r e in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s ha s n e v e r b e e n d o m i n a t e d by a n y g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s c o n ­ c e r n i n g the d i m e n s i o n of the s u b j e c t or the a p p r o p r i a t e m o d e of a n a l y s i s . In o t h e r w o r d s , the f r a m e u o r k s f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n ­ t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s and the u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the b a s i c s t r u c t u r e of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s t e m h a v e a l w a y s b e e n u n d e r s c r u t i n y . T h i s c h a p t e r a d d r e s s e s i t s e l f f i r s t to the q u e s t i o n of c o m p e ­ t i n g f r a m e w o r k s , l i m i t i n g i t s e l f to a d i s c u s s i o n of the 'realist' m o d e l and the ' c o m p l e x i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e ' m o d e l . S e c o n d l y , it w i l l s p e c i f y the b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s of our ow n r e s e a r c h , w h i c h is p r i ­ m a r i l y f oc u s s e d on the b e h a v i o u r of s m a l l s t a t e s t o w a r d s i n t e r n a ­ t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n s e e n f r o m a R a t i o n a l A c t o r a p p r o a c h .

A. C o m p e t i n g F r a m e w o r k s and the S t u d y of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s

1. The I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y s t e m : the C l a s s i c a l M o d e l

a. B a s i c s of the C l a s s i c a l M o d e l

In a f i r s t s e c t i o n we try to e x p l i c a t e the b a s i c s of the c l a s s i c a l f r a m e w o r k in w h i c h m a n y t h e o r i e s in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e ­ l a t i o n s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d . M u c h r e s e a r c h in I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e ­ l a t i o n s di d s t a r t from two a s s u m p t i o n s ï 1) the s t a t e - c e n t r i c a s s u m p t i o n , i.e., the g o v e r n m e n t s are the only i m p o r t a n t a c t o r s in i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s an d 2) the s t a t e - a s - a c t o r , i.e., the g o v e r n m e n t s a r e u n i t a r y a c t o r s in the s e n s e that one can u s e f u l l y a s c r i b e to t h e m at l e a s t some of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p u r p o s i v e ­ n e s s and c h o i c e a s c r i b e d to p e r s o n s . T h e s e two a s s u m p t i o n s h a v e long b e e n at the c o r e of any m o d e l e x p l a i n i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a ­ t i o n s (1).

In the ' c l a s s i c a l ' s c h o o l p o w e r is the c e n t r a l c o n c e p t . N a ­ t i o n a l p o w e r and s e c u r i t y are seen as the p r i m a r y goal and s t r a t e ­ gic c h o i c e as the e m p h a s i s of e v e r y g o v e r n m e n t a l action. By fo­ c u s s i n g on the p r e s u m e d c o m m o n o b j e c t i v e of m a i n t a i n i n g the a u t o ­ n o m y of g o v e r n m e n t s a g a i n s t the d a n g e r of m i l i t a r y d e f e a t , it is r a t h e r an e a s y s t e p to the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t all g o v e r n m e n t s are i n ­ t e r n a l l y u n i t e d by a d e s i r e for m i l i t a r y s e c u r i t y . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n m a k e s it, of c o u r s e , a l s o m o r e p l a u s i b l e t h a t the s t a t e s as c o h e ­ r e n t u n i t s are see n as the d o m i n a n t a c t o r s in w o r l d p o l i t i c s . U i t h - in this f r a m e w o r k it is a l s o a s s u m e d that f o r c e is seen as a u s a b l e and e f f e c t i v e i n s t r u m e n t of p o l i c y and t h a t t h e r e is a h i e r a r c h y of i s s u e s in w o r l d p o l i t i c s f r o m the 'high p o l i t i c s ' of m i l i t a r y s e c u r i t y to the 'lo w p o l i t i c s ' of e c o n o m i c an d s o c i a l affairs.

In s p i t e of s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in i n t e r e s t and focus, m a n y e x p l a n a t i o n s w i t h i n this ' c l a s s i c a l ' f r a m e w o r k h a v e i n d e e d a t t e m p t e d to u n d e r s t a n d e v e n t s in f o r e i g n a f f a i r s as the m o r e or (1) W a g n e r , H., D i s s o l v i n g the S t a t e : T h r e e R e c e n t P e r s p e c t i v e s on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n , Vol. 28, 1974, P. 4 3 5 - 4 6 6 .