Blind insights. A neuroscientific approach to spatial perception and sensory design in architecture

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DIBA ONCEL

2020

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE URBAN PLANNING CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Architecture- Built Environment- Interiors

(BEI)

Masters Degree (LM) Thesis

DIBA ONCEL 896697

Relatore: Prof.

MARCO LUCCHINI

A.A:

2018-2019

Prof. Lucchini: Grazie del suo impegno, auito infinito e le

opportunità che mi ha garantito non solo durante il percorso della tesi ma anche durante la mia carriera universitaria. Senza di lei non avrei mai ottenuto questi risultati.

ANS: Un grazie enorme a tutti i membri dell’associazione per

il loro contributo e impegno infinito durante questo percorso, senza di loro questa tesi non sarebbe mai stata completata.

Aileme: I thank all you for your endless support

obtaining this achievement just as many others in the past. Every single component of you had an immense role in my life accompanying me to present to become who I am.

A GG: For almost three years, you have been my biggest

supporter. Thank you for always believing in me even when I gave up on myself. Arriverà anche il tuo momento

Tantos: The aunt I‘ve never had before, I’m

grateful for your endless love and support.

My chosen ones, Ardian&Irem: I have never thought of

encountering such people with big hearts, always reminding me how strong I am and that I am able to achieve every goal.

A Mari: Grazie per tutta l’energia positiva che mi hai sempre

trasmesso con il tuo sorriso anche nei momenti più bui.

Στην Ελένη:

To Ricky, Deniz & Cort : Each of you have a great role considering

these two years, teaching me the importance of patience and calm; dedication and hardwork; productivity and optimization.

introduction

1

PART

1

Abstract

human brain

2

PART

1

Brief Introduction to Neuroscience

A Brain’s Anatomy; Important Elements to Memory & Consciousness

A1

A1.1 Neocortex, Limbic Brain, Brain Stem A1.2 Triune Brain Theory

A1.3 Lobes of the Brain & Their Functions A2

A2.1 Hippocampus; The Memory Archive &Personal GPS A2.2 Amygdala: The Fighter

A2.3 Primary Sensory Cortices: Stimuli Centers B Plasticity of Brain

C External Stimuli Reception & The Processing Methods

2

Spatial Memory, Emotions & Perception

A Memory & it’s Sub-Categories

A1 Nature of the Memories & their Classification Methods A2 Collective Memory

A3 Attkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model B Perception & Perceptional Learning C Emotions & Emotional Learning

D A Triangular Relationship of Protagonists

sighted vs

unsighted

3

PART

3

Light vs. Dark: A Comparison of Contrasts

A Vision Leading to the Loss of Sensory Qualities in Architecture A1 Advanced Architectural Tools of Pure Vision in Architectural Education & Community

A2 Possible Methods for the Inclusion of Sensory Sensibility in Design Process

B Phenomenological Considerations of Multi-Sensorial

C Neuroscience of the Blind Brain, Brief Introduction to Blindness C1 Congenitally Blind Brain, Late Blind Brain & Visua Impairment C2 Mental Imagery Process in Sighted vs the Blind Brain

4

Spaces Without Eyes, Change in the Realm of Spatial

Perception

A Different Reference Frames in Sighted & Unsighted Individuals for Spatial Navigation

A1 Allocentric and Egocentric Perception A2 Route-like and Map (Survey)- Like Strategies

A3 Landmark Significance for Orientational Process of Unsighted Individuals

A4 Vestibular Perception

sighted vs

unsighted

3

PART

A5 Micro, Meso & Macro Scale Space Representations B Spatial Experiences of Blind

B1 Sighted vs Blind Children

B2 Congenital Blind, Late Blind & Visually Impaired vs Sighted Adults

B2.1 Case Studies

B2.1.1 Blind Architect Chris Downey B2.1.2 Blind Painter Esref Armagan B2.1.3 Interviews

C Sensory Compensation for Vision by the Unsighted & Visually Impaired

C1 Acoustic Spatial Methods C2 Olfactory Spatial Methods

intense experiences

inclusive design,

4

PART

5

Architecture of Senses & Methods for Inclusion of Blind

A1 Non-Residential Case Studies

A1.1 Alvar Aalto- Saynätsälo Town Hall A1.2 Peter Zumthor- Bruder Klaus Chapel A1.3 Alan Dunlop- Hazelwood School Glasgow A1.4 Balkrishna Doshi- Sangath Studio Doshi A2 Residential Case Studies

A2.1 Single Family Houses

A2.1.1 Juhani Pallasmaa- House of the Silence A2.1.2 Frank Llyod Wright- Fallingwater A2.1.3 So & So Studio- Casa MAC A2.2 Social Housing

A2.2.1 Antoni Coderch- Casa de la Marina A2.2.2 Ignazio Gardella- Casa Borsalino A3 Common Points Present in Case Studies

B Cross-modality Between the Sensorial Processes B1 Visuo-Tactile

B2 Audio-Tactile

B3 Olfactory, Gustatory & Tactile

an integration

of the teachings

5

PART

6

How to Merge the Knowledge from Blind Individuals to the

Brain Proces

7

An Altered Appreciation of Space, Un-focusing on the Visual

Architecture

8

Design for All - Through a Broader Range of Stimuli

to conclude

6

PART

9

Conclusions

A What is Wrong in Terms of Visual Priming in Current Architectural Principles & Methods?

B Important Notions & Facilitating Principles While Considering Inclusive Design for Unsighted & Visually Impaired

B1 Micro, Interior Scale B2 Meso, Architectural Scale B3 Macro, Urban Scale

C Intensification of Spatial Experience Through Inclusive Sensorial Design for a Better Connection of Man to his Mind

D Final Notes, Further Research Concepts A Neuro-Dictionary & Bibliography C Acknowledgements

Architectural discourses throughout the centuries have produced a broad range of theories about architecture’s essence, its abilities and tasks. I believe, in our century, man is continuously losing the connection to his essence and to his own mind, caused by the almost infinite power of technology. In the era of mass-production and consumption supported by this technology, the eye has proven its sovereignty due to its fast capturing and analysis skills. Although it is the most trustworthy sense of man, nowadays it highly illudes, interferes, and thus masks other sensory modes resulting in mostly form-obsessed outcomes void of supramodal characteristics.

Therefore, this thesis categorized in three main parts, aims a thorough exploration of the relationship between human brain and the built environment for more stimulating environments and more intense experiences for a broad range of visitors. During the research process, a particular attention is payed to visually disabled segment of population which has been frequently neglected throughout the design and execution processes. However, a detailed exploration

of blind perception is crucial in order to scrutinize different shades of perception which are far beyond visual aspects.

I hope that, as a result, this research initiates further discussions and raises attention on the topic of inclusive design trying to involve all individuals of the society; triggering more intense and complete sensory experiences. Especially in the era of merely eye-based aesthetic judgements, a detailed pondering and an increased curiosity about all the sensory mediums would enhance one-of-a-kind environments rewiring man to his essence which has been disguised and suppressed through the hegemony of the vision. The multidisciplinary character of this research hopefully assists architects on establishing more beneficial and productive principles of architectural and urban design, elevating both the functional and perceptional features of new designs. Since man and the built environment have always had a reciprocal relationship, they continuously modify each other for better or for worse; therefore, the aim should be maximizing the productiveness that both protagonists share, in order for man to connect

himself to his mind and for the built environment to shape the minds of those to come in the most intense way.

I believe it is necessary to be somehow primitive again to fully understand at least the conscious degrees of perception and memories that have guided the human race throughout millenniums. In the highly visual world of fast-imaging and rapid consumption, 21st century has become a place more likely for machines, not people. Thence, to some extent, looking less and relying more on the other sensory modalities would engender more man-like environments and cities suggesting quality spaces that may be appreciated, felt and perceived by all, including visually disabled individuals. We should not let our eyes blind our mind and humanity.

In this era, we

I discorsi sull’architettura portati avanti nel corso dei secoli hanno prodotto una serie di teorie riguardo alla sua essenza, alle sue potenzialità e ai suoi ruoli. Sono dell’idea che l’essere umano stia gradualmente perdendo il contatto con la propria autenticità e la sua mente, a causa dell’ormai infinito potere della tecnologia. Nell’epoca del consumo e della produzione di massa, costantemente fomentate dalla tecnologia stessa, l’occhio umano regna supremo per via delle sue capacità di rapida analisi e cognizione. Pur essendo il senso a cui l’essere umano si affida maggiormente, esso tuttavia illude, distorce la realtà, occultando gli altri modi di percepire la realtà e generando risultati puramente concentrati sulla forma, venendo così a mancare una completa conoscenza sensoriale.

Detto ciò la seguente tesi, strutturata in tre parti principali, ambisce ad una profonda esplorazione del rapporto tra la mente umana e l’ambiente costruito, e a porre le basi per la realizzazione di ambienti più stimolanti, le cui esperienze raggiungano un pubblico più ampio. Nel corso della ricerca, è stata riposta particolare attenzione

alla popolazione non vedente, alla quale questa attenzione è stata spesso negata. D’altronde, l’esplorazione della percezione da non vedente è indispensabile per ottenere diverse sfumature percettive, che vadano oltre il mero aspetto fisico.

Spero che questa ricerca sia uno stimolo per ulteriori dibattiti e che attiri l’attenzione dei più sulla progettazione inclusiva, che vada incontro a tutti gli individui della società, e che inneschi più intense e complete esperienze sensoriali. Soprattutto in un epoca in cui i giudizi estetici si affidano prevalentemente all’occhio, una meditazione approfondita e una maggiore curiosità riguardo a tutti i sensi favorirebbe ambienti one-of-a-kind, riallacciando l’essere umano alla sua essenza, la quale è stata mascherata e soppressa dall’egemonia visiva. Il carattere multidisciplinare di questa tesi aiuta l’architetto nello stabilire principi architettonici e urbanistici più benefici e produttivi, valorizzando ulteriormente sia l’aspetto funzionale che quello percettivo. Dal momento che uomo e ambiente costruito hanno sempre avuto una relazione reciproca, essi si modificano continuamente a vicenda;

perciò l’obbiettivo deve essere massimizzare la produttività che entrambi i protagonisti condividono, per far sì che l’uomo si connetta alla sua mente, e l’ambiente costruito interagisca con la dimensione cognitiva di chi verrà nella maniera più intensa.

Credo che sia necessario tornare ad “uno stato primordiale” per cogliere pienamente le percezioni e i ricordi che hanno guidato l’essere umano attraverso i millenni. Nel mondo delle immagini a raffica e del consumo sfrenato, il ventunesimo secolo è diventato un luogo adatto alle macchine, più che alle persone. Guardare di meno e affidarsi ulteriormente ad altre modalità sensoriali genererebbe dunque ambienti e città più umani, promuovendo spazi apprezzabili e percepibili da tutti, compresi i non vedenti. Non dobbiamo permettere ai nostri occhi di accecare la nostra mente e la nostra umanità.

Oggi, si può fare meglio, se lo si desidera veramente.

The paradox of our time in history is that We have taller buildings, but shorter tempers; wider freeways, but

narrower viewpoints. We spend more, but have less; we buy more, but enjoy it less. We have bigger houses and smaller families; more conveniences, but less

time; We have more degrees, but less sense; more knowledge, but less judgment;

more experts, but more problems; more medicine, but less wellness. We drink too much, smoke too much, spend too recklessly, laugh too little,

drive too fast, get too angry too quickly, stay up too late, get up too tired, read too seldom, watch TV too much, and pray too seldom. We have multiplied our possessions, but reduced our values. We talk too much, love too seldom, and hate too often. We’ve learned how to make a living, but not a life; we’ve added years to

life, not life to years. We’ve been all the way to the moon and back, but have trouble crossing

the street to meet the new neighbor. We’ve conquered outer space, but not inner space. We’ve done larger things, but not better things. We’ve cleaned up the air, but polluted the soul. We’ve split the atom, but not our prejudice. We write more, but learn less. We plan more, but accomplish less. We’ve learned to rush, but not to wait. We build more computers to hold more information to produce more

copies than ever, but have less communication. These are the times of fast foods and slow digestion; tall men, and short

In this century of intense technology, fast production and consumption also in architecture has started taking its place among the world of identicals. As Dickson affirms already in 1998, humankind has managed to conquer the space, yet started to struggle to understand his inner self more than ever. Twenty years after his publication, we still strive to ascertain the pure essence of ourselves and therefore the environment we have shaped throughout the history. The culture of rushing without pauses, infinite hastes along with the rapid production has pushed the contemporary man to produce without critical judgements reproducing shallow and superficial relationships. Objects, architecture, and therefore the space thence became both the outcome and the origin of a lifestyle suitable for machinery as well as both personal and social seclusion. This seclusion resulting from an infinite consumption plummeted the level of detail and depth of any work of man.

While architecture has taken major distance from his originator, it started putting the few connections left to the human mind at stake. Hence, it would be wise to reconsider the teachings

of ancient architectures and the functioning of the very human brain for a better understanding of self, the essential needs and therefore the tasks and the major roles of architecture -the art of space. Throughout the evolution, human mind’s fast developed visual skills are undeniable, yet the illusion that the eyes secretly impose interfere with the other senses eventually neglecting them. At this stage, a multisensory approach is needed to restore this long-lost connection to the very self, abandoning the canons devoid of meanings once and for all.

Learning from visually impaired and disabled individuals represent major potential for a better understanding of the realm of the human perception to the fullest, assisting architects for two main principles: generating a new framework for a better connection of man to his brain through a more complete and intense sensory perception; and novel guidelines towards inclusive design without priming one sensory modality, integrating visually disabled individuals to the ongoing flow of life without obstacles.

Consequently, the purposes of this research are engendered from the curiosity

and the disobedience to the superficial form-finding regarding architecture in the current century that is further distancing man from his sensorial character. This detachment starting from the urban projects of Le Corbusier has taken various shapes starting from the modernism until the works of Hadid favoring the hegemony of the eye once more and suggesting relatively low relationship with the context. I believe that in this century where the tools are more advanced than ever, architects should adapt the most efficient ones rather than the fastest, seeking a deeper connection to the mind through a complete sensorial perception. Eventually, it is through the series of sensorial process man perceives the space and therefore forms his memories. The process is reciprocal: the minds shape the built environment and the built environment shapes the young minds. Therefore, architecture, I believe, has the critical responsibility to respect the sensorial nature of man and the functioning of the great master, the brain.

HUMAN

BRAIN

CH

1

Eberhard explains cognition as “Anything that happens in the mental domain, which includes thinking, memory, attention, learning, mental attitudes, and emotions. When the authors refer to cognition or mind, they do not mean to separate them from the brain. The brain and mind have to be explained together” (Eberhard) Therefore there are various fundamentals acting in the cognitive process of the human brain. In this section some crucial elements have been scrutinized and analyzed thoroughly in order to understand the relationship of man and the built environment through the most complex

BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO NEUROSCIENCE

A. Brain’s Anatomy; Important Elements

to Memory and Consciousness

and unique entity, the brain.

This chapter is dedicated to a brief explanation of human brain’s anatomy and the functions of the related areas to be more aware of its processing modes of various stimuli arriving from the external world. Since the brain’s unique means of communication between the man and what is external to him is the sensory mechanisms and the association of this input to the related areas in the brain , an understanding of the main elements of the brain related to consciousness is crucial to be aware of the neuroscientific background of this research.

There are approximately 100 billion neurons in the brain with the capacity of creating 10,000 synapses each (Mallgrave) in order to maintain the most vital and primary functions: self-maintenance and self-transcendence. (Eberhard) Mallgrave explains this situation stating:

“In other words, the number

of possible brain states, exceed

the number of elementary

particles in the known

universe.” (Mallgrave, 160)

Therefore, the brain neurons’ capacity to create new connections and networks through the synapses is extremely complex rendering the human brain the most exceptional entity in the whole universe. Most of this entity is still a mystery and there

is a great amount of information still in need of discovery.

In the most basic terms, the brain is formed by three fundamental parts with various functions, and through evolution these parts started developing in different velocities. For instance, the most inner part, therefore the most primitive one is the Brainstem where we have the automatic control mechanisms for vital functions such as the heart rate, digestion and respiratory actions; and it connects the Cerebellum and the Cerebrum to the Spinal Cord (Anatomy). Thence, this inner core of the brain deals with the most important functions essential for survival thence it is fundamental for every multi-cellular creature in the animal world including the reptiles. For this

A.I.I. Neocortex, Limbic Brain, Brain Stem

reason, the reptilian brain works mostly with the instincts as defined in the Triune Brain Model by Paul MacLean (Holden).

The Cerebellum -also called the little brain- instead, is the center of sensory input with muscular responses and the execution of motor functions once they are learned. So, it is involved in the execution of the learned actions and it is in charge of the physical habits of the body and therefore it controls the muscular movements for learned actions; it is responsible for the body posture, muscle coordination and balance.

Lastly, on top of these two basal structures the Cerebrum, composed of various gyri, is located and its surface is called cortex or Gray-Matter, because the nerve cell bodies on the surface give it a grey-brown color, while the area below the surface of the Cerebrum is called the White-Matter (Anatomy). The surface area of the Cerebrum, the Cortex, contains various cortices of brain such as Visual Cortex, Somatosensory Cortex and Somatomotor Cortex which are responsible for the processing different kinds of external stimuli.

According to Triune Brain Model by Paul MacLean defined first in 1960’s, vertebrate brain throughout the evolution has developed three main parts. These parts are all involved with various functions and they all developed in different modes in different animals sequentially. Therefore, the most basic and primitive one is the Reptilian Brain Complex or R-Complex which is formed by the Basal Ganglia that is followed by the Paleomammalian Brain or Limbic System and the Neo-mammalian respectively (MacLean). Hence, humans and the reptiles have the primitive brain in common, but humans have developed the emotional parts which are found in mammals but also the rational parts which differentiate the humankind from the animals (Holden). According to MacLean’s theory, these three entities compete for behavioral priority, consequently the decisions taken by individuals might be frequently rational yet sometimes might derive from instinct-related reasons.

According to MacLean, The Reptilian Brain is formed by the brainstem and the cerebellum, therefore it lacks the emotional and rational dimension of the human brain (Mitchell). The reptilian brain is the most primitive part of the brain where several functions of survival are processed. These functions include the reactions for instinctual behavior, survival and reproduction that differs the reptilian brain from the mammalian brain (MacLean). In his description he separates the Basal Ganglia from limbic system and suggests that they are the part of reptilian brain where modern neuroscience includes them in Limbic system. MacLean defines the Limbic System as the early mammalian brain, which includes also the behavioral consequences and the emotional dimension to the reptilian brain. The limbic system is one

A.I.II. Triune Brain Theory

of the key elements among the other structures of brain in terms of processing of the received stimuli from sensory system. It is the point where the subcortical elements meet the cerebral cortex (Schacter); Thalamus, Amygdala and Hippocampus are major actors in the limbic system. All these components collaborate with the cortex in order to encode and recall the registered information in the time-space medium. Therefore, the limbic system is the basic system of instinctual decision making in a very short time. Individuals have no control over the limbic system, and the results it produces, since all the mechanism is designed mostly as a protection against a possible threat, taking an action of fight or flight in the minimum time required in mammals (Eberhard, Damasio 2008). Considering Damasio’s approach, it can be claimed that the primary emotions, therefore the events triggering fear are processed by the limbic system, and especially the amygdala (Damasio 2008).

The limbic system processes the “non-declarative” and “declarative” emotional memories in different manners and two main components of these processes are Amygdala and Hippocampus which are explained on the related chapter dedicated to memory types and processing methods (Eberhard,

123). Therefore, the limbic system and especially the Amygdala and Hippocampus are crucial to consider for architectural research and design since they create a strong sense of personality and self through emotions and memories of various kinds.

Thalamus instead, is similar to a control tower in a way that all signals first pass through the Thalamus for appropriation and characterization, and then they reach the related area of the brain. (Gazzaniga) For instance, the visual stimuli received from retina of the eyes arrive to the related area of Thalamus and after categorization they are directed to the Occipital Lobe where the visual imaging processes are carried on.

“We try to be rational, intellectual, to be wary of our emotions. But as far as we have been able to tell to this day- and this is probably the most fundamental thing we have learned or ever will learn about the nervous system-the only part of the brain that can tell us what we perceive to be real things is the limbic brain” (Holden). With this

quote, MacLean suggests that the human perception depends highly on the limbic system, processing the information acquired from the external world through the senses. He suggests that the only mechanism of confirmation for the realness of the objects or

FIG. 2

things is the limbic brain because it involves various components crucial for perception of events and their memory. Since the limbic brain is developed in the mammals as an instinctual mechanism for wild nature, it produces instant answers and perceptual outcomes forming unprocessed outcomes in specific conditions where a fast response is needed. Therefore, the formation of perception depends highly on the emotional aspects of an incident, forming the memories accordingly. The episodes processed by the limbic system are not yet produced by the Rational Brain, and they generally trigger a very strong emotional response.

Finally, the last element of the triune brain theory is the Neocortex. According to this

theory, the development of a specie is directly proportional with the ratio of the size of neocortex over the body mass, and the neocortex is the last part to develop in the brain. It is therefore the most sophisticated and unique area which is related with rationality, logic decision taking and abstract thinking (Mitchell). In fact, humans have the most sophisticated brain due to the increased size of the neocortex and the complexity of the cortex foldings. Thence, they are the only specie that is highly aware of themselves also possessing the advanced rational and logical thinking abilities along with the mental imagery and abstract thinking; which are crucial aspects analyzing any natural or architectonic space.

Cingulate Gyrus

Parahippocampal Gyrus Hippocampus Amygdala

Hypothalamus

Autonomic functions regulating heart rate and blood pressure as well as cognitive, attentional and emotional processing.

Spatial memory Long-term memory

Anxiety, aggression, fear conditioning; emotional memory, social cognition.

Regulation of autonomic nervous system. Secondary effect on blood pressure, heart rate, hunger, thirst, sexual arousal and rhythm of sleep

FIG. 1

The brain is divided into four major lobes by the fissures each responsible for different actions and each containing different elements, yet these lobes represent a very complex interrelation among them and between the two hemispheres (Anatomy). These lobes are formed during the fetal development and they are all already present at birth, yet each develop with a different pace (Eberhard). Therefore, starting from the birth until the end of the life of an individual, the brain constantly develops reaching the maximum of its pace at adulthood and slowing down while the individuals start getting older. Contrasting the beliefs of the past researchers, new experiments and findings demonstrate that the brain never stops developing and making new connections; which constitutes the basis of the evolving brain theory (Eberhard)

FIG. 3 Frontal Lobe Olfactory Bulb Temporal Lobe Precentral Gyrus Central Sulcus Postcentral Gyrus Occipital Lobe Parietal Lobe Cerebellum

FIG. 4

The occipital lobes in both hemispheres are the ones located at the very back of the brain containing the primary visual cortex that processes the visual imaging (Anatomy). This

The Occipital Lobe

area is very active since birth which proves that the brain is highly visual starting from the birth. Visual spatial encoding starts from the very birth of every newborn making the brain highly visual since by the visual processing the brain receives a great amount of information and therefore this process requires less time compared to the other sensory information processing modalities. This lobe doesn’t really have a clear division from the parietal lobe, which is responsible for mostly for the processing of the senses since it contains the somatosensory cortex (Eberhard). In blind individuals’ occipital lobe, the area dedicated to vision, therefore the visual cortex is assigned the functions related to language due to the plasticity of the brain which explained in the related chapter (Silva).

FIG. 5

Schematic representation of areas related to vision in healthy individuals.

Schematic representation of areas involved in language comprehension and semantic processes.

Representation of cross-neuroplasticity in congenital visually impaired patients. It is observed, an expansion of areas not related to vision to the visual cortex resulting in an improvement of non-visual senses.

A. B. C.

FIG. 6

The parietal lobe is separated from the frontal lobe through the Central Sulcus and from Temporal Lobe through the Sylvian Fissure, yet it does not have a clear division from the Occipital Lobe apart from the parieto-occipital fissure. It is a quite complex lobe in terms of function since it possesses linguistical and speech related functions as well as the interpretative ones for the information coming from various sensory modalities such as the touch, vision and hearing (Anatomy). It has also an important role in spatial and visual perception, therefore it is also crucial for architectonic interpretations.

FIG. 8

The Temporal Lobe is associated with very important spatial components such as emotions, memory, hearing and some aspects of language (Wernicke’s area) since the auditory cortex is located in this lobe. Therefore, the damage of the temporal lobe may result in difficulties in speech and language. Temporal lobe has a major importance also because Hippocampus and Amygdala are located in the medial region of this lobe in each hemisphere. Therefore, the temporal lobe plays an important lobe in learning, memory processing and retrieval; having an undeniable significance for the limbic system.

The Temporal Lobe

FIG. 7

The Frontal Lobe is separated from the Parietal Lobe through the Central Sulcus and from the Temporal Lobe by the lateral sulcus (Lobes). It is the last lobe to develop among the other three lobes and it involves rational thinking, decision making mechanism and logical judgements. Character, behaviors therefore the self of the individual is highly related to this lobe (Anatomy). Therefore, the prefrontal dispositions are not innate nor related to primary emotions, but rather learnt and related to the unique sense of one’s being (Eberhard). Even though the Frontal Lobe it is almost physically complete at birth, it requires major time to fully develop, and thence the children are not fully capable of taking rational and logical decisions nor they have a complete character. The damage or dysfunction with this lobe might result in drastic changes in personality and behavior of an individual just as in the case of the Phineas Gage. Gage was a railway worker lived in 1850’s and while he was at work, caused by an explosion of gunpowder he was by blinded by the reverse motion of a rod and he had severe damages in his frontal lobe (Lobes).The accident resulted in a major change in his personality and voluntary movement as observed by the other colleagues, they claimed that he had become a disrespectful and offensive person that they had difficulties to understand (Hays).

Hippocampus is the memory center of the brain. Even though it is involved in learning through the processing of the external stimuli arriving from sensory input elements, the memories are not stored as archived file folders forever. Thence, human memory differs from the computer memory for being highly dynamic, less exact but more capable of generalization (Eberhard). The memories stored in the form of pieces of neuronal networks that are learned either involuntarily or voluntarily (Eberhard); and are put together just as puzzle pieces when needed through a connection mechanism by the neurons using glutamates. Hippocampus is closely related to Amygdala, and therefore emotions are fundamental for every memory to be stored for future use when needed. In fact,

Amygdala and Hippocampus are two fundamental elements of limbic system, where the events are considered and processed also with the involvement of Thalamus by their emotional aspects, especially fear. Therefore, emotions and memories are two inseparable components. Apart from its collaboration with Amygdala, Hippocampus also collaborates with Cerebellum, Thalamus and the Cortex in order to recall and record events in the time and space medium since they are involved with the orders of inputs and outputs.

Recent studies also demonstrate that the Hippocampus is also closely related with navigation through built environment. “Our memory of events may depend upon a strong sense of place, and by

A.II.I. Hippocampus; The Memory Archive and Personal GPS

FIG. 9

extension, our sense of place may be influenced by the integrity of the memories formed there”

(Sternberg). The statement by Sternberg is crucial while analyzing the hippocampus, since it demonstrates the relationship between the sense of a place and memories a person forms in that environment. Therefore, it is clear that the hippocampus plays a major role in navigation as well as the memory formation and processing procedure. In fact, considering the differentiation between the space and place, there is a major relationship between the movement and interaction level of

an individual and the environment (Sternberg). Even placemaking is strictly related to the hippocampus and to the limbic system, which then forms the subjective perception of each individual.

An experiment made with London taxi drivers, clearly demonstrates the role of the hippocampus in the navigational process. In order to pass a test by the government, the drivers had to memorize all the possible streets of London and this situation has led to a development of their Hippocampus (Eberhard, 190). fMRI scans revealed that the size of the hippocampus grew after memorizing all the streets of London. In this case, there is an apparent cross-functioning of the spatial memory and the navigational abilities which are both related to Hippocampus. During this research, scientists compared the result of the taxi drivers to a controlled group that did not drive taxis and discovered that the two different areas of the hippocampi were crucial.

“Posterior hippocampus stores a spatial representation of the environment and can expand regionally to accommodate elaboration of this representation in people with a high dependence on navigational skills” (Maguire).

While the taxi drivers possessed larger posterior hippocampi directly proportional with the time spent as a driver, the controlled group appeared to have larger anterior hippocampi. They claim that this phenomenon is also seen in different mammals and birds for simpler tasks of memory, and therefore this occurrence is not unique to humans since this navigational character of hippocampus is to encode the spatial memory in the form of mental maps (Maguire).

In the architectonic field, another fundamental area

is the Parahippocampal Place Area (PPA) and therefore the Parahippocampal Gyrus; since it is the area that the brain encodes novel information about the physical characteristics of an environment (Baars). This area surrounds the hippocampus and it is a part of the limbic system. Through the processes in this area, human mind receives information about the layout and the functioning of any space, it is most active when there is a complex scene or landscape, since it requires more effort to figure out the layout of these spaces (Eberhard, 75).

Hippocampus growth results both in an enhanced memory and orientational skills. Drivers memorize complex streets of London to pass the test

Amygdala has an almond shape and it is composed of more than ten sub-regions. It is the emotional center of the brain; therefore, it processes the emotion related issues and events. For long time it was believed that Amygdala was only responsible for the fear and stress responses, but later on researchers agreed that only the central nucleus is responsible for such responses, alerting the body once a fear target is encountered (Eberhard,123).

It is highly active during the emotional stimuli; the emotions related to fear, anxiety and sad emotions are processed in the right hemisphere while the left one processes the pleasant emotions (Lanteaume) along with the rewarding mechanism (Murray). Thence it is responsible for the emotional memory and emotional learning along with the secretions by blood (Rajmohan). Therefore, amygdala is a fundamental element of the limbic system and it collaborates intensely with the hippocampus for the processing of the memories. Amygdala’s significance is quite unknown to the architectural community of the contemporary era considering that the architectural outcomes have become quite repetitive and identical, failing to trigger a wide range of emotions. They rather aim at creating a sense of visual awe engendered by the grandeur in public buildings and in infrastructural constructions rather than trying to stimulate emotions targeting comfort and well-being. A great number of individuals, especially the old segment and the people with visual disabilities find it difficult to navigate in such places and they claim that these environments induce stress (Anonymous 1).

A.II.II. Amygdala: The Fighter

FIG. 11

Rajmohan argues that Amygdala is also involved in emotional responses for smell as well as the interpretational process of the complex social cognition tasks and behaviors (Rajmohan). Furthermore, as Pallasmaa implies in Eyes of the Skin, the strong emotional responses and memory formations through the olfaction establish unique sensations that cannot be obtained by other senses, they seem much more connected to the inner soul of the individual. Therefore, these emotional responses related to Amygdala, might be one of the crucial aspects that the architectural community should consider while designing in order to generate more memorable environments. Another aspect of the Amygdala is that it plays a significant role in motivational and reward-related processes co-working with the prefrontal cortex (Rajmohan). Thence, the effects of Amygdala on the personal rewarding and motivational processes could be studied in depth in order to have useful feedbacks for educational and sportive facilities’ design.

Amygdala has an almond shape and it is a crucial element of Human Limbic system since it is strictly related with emotions, especially the ones concerning fear.

In human brain, the sensory cortices are the located on the neocortex and they are related to the processing of various input arriving through the specific organs. Sensory cortices are of a great importance in terms of allowing the communication of an individual with the external world since without these mechanisms it would be impossible interpreting and integrating the information acquired through sensory organs. Since architecture communicates the human mind through these fundamental senses, it is crucial for architects to know the cross-modal interactions between the sensory mechanisms and the processing methods of the stimuli by the brain in order to take appropriate design decisions.

Primary somatosensory cortex, also referred as S1 region, is

responsible for the understanding and processing of tactility related information such as kinesthetic-proprioceptional stimuli, pain, and temperature detection (Webb). This kind of information is received from all different parts of the body through the muscles, joints and skin (Webb) and it is the first primary sensory cortex to develop during sequential sensory growth of fetus among the others (Eberhard). A disturbance or malfunctioning of the primary somatosensory cortex might result in partial or complete sensory loss (Webb) causing problems with detection of related stimuli and cues in the built environment.

The cortices that develop next in the brain of a fetus are the chemosensory cortices, therefore the olfactory and gustatory cortices (Eberhard). These cortices are

A.III. Sensory Cortices: Stimuli Centers

located right under the somatosensory cortex very close to one another anatomically also having a reciprocal function. The primary olfactory cortex is located in the temporal lobe just as the primary auditory cortex, and it includes some parts of the Parahippocampal gyri (Webb) which are actually responsible for spatial cognition (Rajmohan). The smell of a place is strongly associated with the identity of that space and therefore it represents a major significance in terms of memories, especially for visually deprived individuals. It is quite interesting that the spatial memory and the sense of smell are processed at corresponding of the brain which is the Parahippocampal area. After the development of the chemosensory cortices auditory and visual cortices -in the occipital lobe- develop respectively. Eberhard highlights that it quite curious how the visual cortex is able to develop without the need of light during pregnancy which is actually quite fascinating (Eberhard).

A possible disruption in the sequence of sensory development causes problems for the infant, and the most common cause of this sensory disruption is the premature birth. In this case, Eberhard talks about the role of the architects giving the example of the prenatal care units’ design and why they do not support prenatal development. In such situations architects have critical responsibility to pay attention to the development of human brain and cognition, considering the possible outcomes of the design choices.

The plasticity of brain is the main aspect that differs it from the man-made computers. While the same computer might be produced in an infinite amount, each person’s brain is unique, irreplaceable and evermodifiable, even identical twins have two distinct brains physically and functionally (Mallgrave 2011). Every individual is born with almost the complete brain in size, but with only about 50% of all connections (Mallgrave 2011). Mallgrave claims that humans are basically the connections they establish over the course of their life cycle, yet a majority of these connections occur in the earliers phases of the brain and the cycle of life, during the period that the brain develops in its fastest pace (Mallgrave). That is the reason why children may have less difficulties learning new languages or practicing musical instruments and dancing (Mallgrave). All of these abilities that allow the brain to form new connections gaining new skills are due to the plasticity. Therefore, the plastic character of brain is the fundamental which makes the brain superior and invincible to any other man-made product, since it indicates that human brain continuously modifies itself to form new connections and eliminate the ones that are not in use.

The plasticity is of two kinds; the physical and functional (Mallgrave,135). The physical plasticity of the brain denotes the fact that human brain physically alters itself whenever it establishes novel connections between various neurons, and every single connection represents a different new skill or memory. Instead, the functional plasticity indicates the phenomenon of modification in terms function

B.

Plasticity of Brain

in various areas of the brain. For instance, in the case of sensory disabilities the brain recruits the related areas in the lobes and assigns novel functions to those regions co-working with the rest of the neural circuit.

In the case of the blindness, the vision related area of the brain; the visual cortex in the occipital lobe, is dedicated to other functions for late blind or congenitally blind individuals (Cattaneo). Cattaneo and Vecchi in Blind Vision: The Neuroscience of Visual Impairment argue that the plasticity of the brain allows blind individuals to recruit the Occipital Lobe’s lost visual function for different purposes such as the tactile and auditory information processing. They claim that the presence of a phonological or semantic encoding related to language is not necessary for the activation of the visual cortex by tactile tasks performed by the blind individuals. For instance, in the case of braille reading, the activation of the occipital lobe in blind individuals might depend both on the sensory and higher-order factors, therefore language related cognitive reasons as Stilla suggests (Stilla).

Another recruitment

mode of the occipital lobe would be by the auditory sensory modalities by the blind. Yet, Kujala claims that this recruitment is not a mere activation of the ex-visual area by any auditory stimulus, but it rather involves a closer attention; therefore, it is a product of a conscious awareness to sounds and auditory changes in space (Kujala). This awareness mechanism might be due to the possibility of detecting a potential danger or in order to notice crucial events happening in the surroundings.

Functional plasticity of the brain should therefore become quite crucial for the architects for a more inclusive design framework especially for sensory disabilities such as blindness, since in the case of a possible sight loss or congenital visual diseases visual stimuli processing mechanisms are replaced with effective auditory and tactile modes allowing individuals to experience the built environment through other kinds of input. Considering this issue in mind, it could be wise to include visuo-tactile or audio-tactile cues to the design of various scales in order to provoke a faster mental imaging and therefore an easier understanding of space.

Edelman and Gally define re-entry as “the ongoing bidirectional exchange of signals” (Edelman, Gally). The concept of re-entry is the basic concept of how the human brain categorizes each information and allows the individuals to select and isolate specific elements. This categorization process is strengthened and developed by the memories and experiences throughout the individuals’ lifetime and therefore every individual is unique, there are no two identical individuals existing in the world even if they are identical twins, Edelman argues (Edelman, 1998). According to him, this personally tailored processing method is the key to human consciousness since human brain is selective towards any information it receives.

The brain categorizes signals by different senses, yet the method is still a mystery. Through a selection of distributed patterns of neural activity, the brain interacts with the rest of the body and external events. Dispersed but well-connected neurons constitute the basis of the ability to select and process particular motor and perceptual sequences. Ability to choose, select and isolate specific objects or events from the great pool of existing entities is due to this concept of re-entry or neural circuitry (Eberhard) The perfect example would be an improvising string quartet, since even if they improvise, they are able to provide a coherent music (Eberhard). Therefore, the outcome becomes a well-integrated set of musicians and musical notes. Just as the string quartet, the brain’s dispersed neurons function exactly in the same manner becoming much more than just a rational sum of its parts forming the consciousness and identity of each individual.

C. External Stimuli Reception and The Processing

Methods

Concept of Re-entry

HUMAN

BRAIN

CH

2

Undeniably, the memory has served the humankind and all the other animals throughout their lifetime and evolution for various reasons, mainly for survival. Instead, human mind has developed in a fast pace allowing man to be unique among the animal world because of the ability to generate logical ideas (Kandel 2018) and ever-changing interpretations from novel experiences both conscious and unconsciously. The human mind is greatly selective during the formation and retrieval of memories; personal emotions and the act of perception is of a great

importance, thence these vital trio determining the identity of individuals should be examined all together. Furthermore, the neuronal processing of the memory, emotions and perception is an indivisible entity, and they continuously modify each other altering in the continuum of time and space.

This section is dedicated to the thorough scrutiny of the principal elements crucial for human mental processing throughout their lives such as the perception of space, the emotions involved in the perception and therefore the memories formed as a result of the perception and related feelings. A detailed approach for the processing methods and types of the memories is adopted in order to understand the various typologies of memories crucial for the architectural design and the built environment such as the short-long term and collective memories. A detailed analysis of human perception through space and the roles of emotions in perception in neuroscientific level are investigated in order to invite the architects to be more conscious of their responsibility and sensitive towards the perception of individuals experiencing the

environment. It is crucial to understand the role of the sensory engagement and emotions for the human perception of space and the formation of memories in order to be able to define more inclusive design frameworks for all individuals.

Until half a century ago, scientists believed that there were Enigma cells that stored the memories of human beings, but then this theory has lost credibility during the second half of the twentieth century. Having a single cell or a unique area in the brain related to memory storage was considered obsolete after the fMRI was invented, it would be impossible for the human brain to store all these images for a lifetime. (Mallgrave, 163). Therefore, the memories do not have representational identity in the brain, and they are not stored as specific episodic pictures,

A.

Memory and it’s Sub-Categories

A.I Nature of the Memories and their Classification Methods

but they are rather dormant connections formed by various neuron networks. (Mallgrave, 163). Thence, the memories are not stored in specific cells as we store our books in specific rooms of libraries; but it would be more accurate to think that the memories are organized as different chapters of a book, all cross referenced and stored in different states to be assembled when needed. The memory is not composed of ordered folders containing episodes but rather categories of fragment networks that are continuously modified and re-stimulated. Thus, they are

defined as a union of emotional and perceptual learning along with priming (Eberhard). That is why the bizarre familiarity with particular sensory stimuli occurs continuously during lifetime blending in with the emotions, dreams and delusions (Mallgrave, 165).

Another problem is that there is no coding nor classifying mechanism in the brain that is involved with the pictorial representations as explained by Mallgrave. Going back to the example of the library, also in this case it may be claimed that there are no librarians in the brain ordering the memory pieces. Thus, the conception of memory as a symbolized entity is no more accepted by scientists especially after the experiments conducted with fMRI. Kandel therefore linked the memories to neuronal circuits and not to single neurons (Kandel 2006).

Starting from 70’s, scientists started to relate memories not to neurons but to neural circuits since all types of stimuli coming from the senses cause physical synaptic changes throughout the brain. Therefore, they discovered that the short-term (working) memory and

long-term memory function in different ways. While the short-term memory releases a negatively charged polar amino acid glutamate to strengthen the synapses, the long-term memory creates new synapses. (Mallgrave, 161) In this case, it is obvious that in order to form new long-term memories the brain should first strengthen and prepare the synapses to create new ones which will last for a lifetime if continued to be used.

Memories work with comparison of similar events or experiences occurred in the past (Mallgrave). Therefore, in the brain the timeline of events is slightly altered, and blurred between past, present and future. Realized images and perceived images are processed in the same area of the brain, thence recalling a memory activates the same area in the brain as the moment of receiving it for the first time in the form of stimuli (Mallgrave, 164).

The neuroscientist

“The insurmountable

problem that there is

no known biological

mechanism for coding

or symbolizing pictorial

representations, and what

is more, there exists no

homunculus or tiny person

inside our brains to read

the results” (Mallgrave, 161)

Joaquin M. Fuster discovered two important facts about memory; the first one is that the memory is associative, thence, it is an act of classification. Human mind receives stimuli, processes them and then interprets them in a specific manner. After this interpretation process all the memories are classified according to various aspects and they are associated to exclusive events, timeframes and spaces. Considering various typologies of buildings in architecture, the memories individuals have in various spaces are associative. For instance, an individual entering a church perceives the church of a particular architectural style through the senses of vision, hearing, tactility and chemosensory modalities; undergoing a multi-sensory experience formed with the involvement of the different areas in the brain that to classifies the information of various types. The decorative and functional elements of the church are then encoded in brain in pieces in terms of their character, material, size and other differentiating characters allowing the individual to associate this experience to a spiritual environment. The reason why the churches awaken very strong feelings in individuals is

because they transmit a multi-sensory experience stimulating various sensory cortices in the brain; therefore, creating a cross-modal effect which is unlike the everyday spaces a person passes by. Whenever the same person enters another church, he is then able to recall and retrieve these dormant connections in the various areas of the brain understanding the role and function of the altar, the central naves and isles.

The second one instead, consists of the processing and the representation method of the memories. Fuster argues that in the brain, processing and representation mechanisms are inseparable while encountering events similar to those registered previously (Fuster). Therefore, when the same person enters in another church the information related to the typology, organization, function and decoration of the previous church is retrieved and represented as a mental image simultaneously allowing the individual to recall the past experience as a former episode to assign a meaning to the church he is currently in. This mechanism of processing and representation of the memories adhere each other strongly, thence it is impossible to separate

“The accumulation

and persistence of

past experiences of the

individual, collectively

called memory,

are responsible for

creating individual

identity.” (Buzsaki)

the mental imagery process from the final representation of memory since the phenomenon of memory functions when there are both of these elements involved.

Even though they have a slightly different vision, all neuroscientists accept the dynamic and continuous nature of the brain, stating that the brain is “constructive rather than replicative” since the new

information perceived through senses is processed by the same parts that store the older memories (Mallgrave). This proves the presence of the never-ending relationship between the experiences gained and the ones to gain (Mallgrave). The re-firing of the existing circuits occurs in the hippocampus of limbic system, which also represents a major importance for the spatial navigation in the built environment. Therefore, spatial memory is strictly linked to spatial navigation and landmarking; allowing individuals to remember the pathways and making it possible to move in spaces of different typologies and scales. While talking about the Hippocampus, Buzsaki states:

“A large connection space that is ideally built for the construction of episodes and event sequences

from arbitrary relations by providing a spatiotemporal context for the information to be deposited” (Buzsáki).The spatial

navigation and the episodic memory are processed together in the brain along with temporal information since all the episodic memories need to provide a spatiotemporal background for the events and this is not just a coincidence nor an accident. Thence, all these aspects are processed by the same area of the brain which is the hippocampus. Therefore, the accumulation of all these experiences filtrated by the unique neurocircuitry of individuals create the unique identity every person (Buzsaki).

Human brain is wired to choose the irregularities among the patterns or elements

of established orders, a more memorable space needs to include both regularities and also contrasting elements to notice among the regular patterns (Albright). The presence of irregularities augments the level of complexity for the human brain and therefore the level of interaction with the surroundings, since the brain spends more time figuring out various characteristics to be differentiated from the regularly ordered patterns. In fact, Sternberg in Neuroscience and Architecture: Seeking Common Ground suggests that the differentiation between space and place, therefore placemaking is due to the level of interaction between the visitor and the environment; hence the degree of exploration allowed to the visitor through the space greatly affects memory formation

“I claim that the formal characteristics

of most human products, from tools to

buildings and from clothing to ornaments,

can be seen as manifestations of that

sense of order which is deeply rooted in

man’s biological heritage.” -E. Gombrich

and establishes environments of a more memorable character (Sternberg). Moreover, since the human brain is obsessed with patterns as Albright states, neither a confusing environment of chaos lacking a sense of order will establish a memorable space just as mere outcomes of order would provoke a sense of dullness and boredom. Ernst Gombrich claims that humankind is strictly bonded to the sense of order staring that it is a biological heritage (Gombrich). Therefore, an established sense of order along with the presence of particular elements outstanding from this order would induce more memorable experiences for the human hippocampus becoming the landmarks of the specific pattern.

In architectural world architects and theoreticians often refer to collective memory which consists of a common background for particular societies, ethnicities or religious groups. Collective memory of various groups of individuals represents a great meaning and significance both from typological and functional point of view in disciplines like design, architecture and urban studies. Collective memories, just as Rossi mentions, are the essence of a city assigning an identity both to its citizens as well as the built environment itself (Rossi). Rossi explains the city as the physical form of an entity engendered form the collective backgrounds of its citizens in a locus, therefore an existing milieu in time and space.

Looking from a neuroscientific point of view, the

collective memory theory is quite significant in different social contexts as well as the evolutionary journey of man considering that human beings are social animals as defined by Aristotle. From another perspective, also the biological coding of man altered during the evolutionary process still reflects some primordial and collective unconscious memories. In Body, Mind, Imagination: The Mental Essence of Architecture; Pallasmaa suggests that there are some dormant collective notions common among all humans. These implicit memories are due to man’s nature and its evolutionary process. For instance, he claims that the fireplace and its pleasant perception in the modern and contemporary era is due to an unconscious memory of fire, since the fireplace generated the first architectural locus for

A.II Collective Memory

FIG. 13

Loreto Square looking towards Via Antonio Porpora and Via Andrea Costa. Loreto Square in Milan is a great example of a collective memory related to national history. B. Mussolini’s dead body was exposed at this square after the WWII.

FIG. 14

Holocaust Memorial in Berlin, by Peter Eisenman built in 2005. Memorial sites reach to a broad range of visitors revealing common memories as in the case of Holocaust Memorial.

“One can say that the city itself is

the collective memory of its people,

and like memory it is associated

with objects and places. The city is

the locus of the collective memory.

This relationship between the locus

and the citizenry then becomes the

city’s predominant image, both of

architecture and of landscape, and

as certain artifacts become part of its

memory, new ones emerge” -Aldo Rossi.

the primitive men and it is still encoded in human consciousness; thence its presence still generates the sense of safety and comfort (Robinson 2015). Therefore, extending Rossi’s statement, collective memories of implicit character can be associated with all humanity dating back to the first humans; implying that some of the unexplained common feelings towards specific elements of nature and architecture are due to the implicit memories tied to the perceptions of the past.

“Architecture moves us by

touching three layers of

memory” (Eberhard, 89)

Christopher Egan claims that there are three sub-layers of memory naming them as the shadow, cultural and the personal ones. Chronologically looking, the shadow ones are the ones dating to the very early centuries of manhood which are about caves, light, fire and so on while the cultural ones are more related to the built environment and the context we are raised in. Therefore, the shadow memories are somehow unconscious memories that the human race has passed on for generations through the evolutional process of our very existing. Hence, nowadays they are more similar to internal instincts seeking comfort or preferences related to the desire for safety and so on. Contrasting the shadow memories, cultural ones can be addressed as the ones that rather create biases

A.III Attkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model

coming from the background of an individual that might be related to specific ethnicities, nations, family beliefs and so on; while the personal memories are unique to every individual also depending on the cultural memories. Therefore, if these three layers are to be categorized, there is an evident sequence starting from more generic memories arriving to more specific ones. The first ones are more common memories common for all humankind, the second is narrowed down to specific cultures yet still reflects a collective memory while the last layer of memory is related to personal remembrances. It is crucial to grasp that all three of these layers are all parts of long-term memories.

Atkinson and Shiffrin, two scientists, came up with

a memory model classifying various types of human memories which is still vastly accepted by the scientists in the contemporary era. Their memory model consists of three main typologies of memories, which are differentiated in terms of their use and temporal order. These three categories of temporal orders are; sensory memory, short-term or working memory and long-term memory respectively. They define the sensory memory as the instant experiences through the sensory

HUMAN MEMORY

SENSORY MEMORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY LONG-TERM MEMORY

EXPLICIT MEMORY

DECLARATIVE MEMORY

EPISODIC

MEMORY SEMANTICMEMORY

IMPLICIT MEMORY PROCEDURAL MEMORY unconscious conscious FAcTs, EVEnTs EXPERiEncEs concEPTs sKiLLs, TAsKs LiFETiME <1 Min <1 sEc EVEnTs FAcTs

Atkinson-shiffrin Memory Model

FIG. 15

organs which are experiences in less than one second, while the short-term memory is the one that is needed to complete a specific task in a specific moment. Instead the last one, therefore the long-term memory is the one that individuals normally refer when they mention the concept of memory. Thence it is the memory type that people gather throughout their lives both consciously and unconsciously. Therefore, conscious and unconscious memories are two