Uno dei limiti di questo lavoro è rappresentato dalla mancanza di dati relativi al BMI nel gruppo di controllo e alla lateralizzazione e alla quantificazione delle abilità cognitive nei due gruppi.
A causa dell’impostazione metodologica dello studio non è stato inoltre possibile somministrare i questionari al gruppo di controllo, per studiare la ricerca di eventuali correlazioni anche in tale popolazione, dal momento che non possiamo escludere che il mancato riscontro di correlazioni possa dipendere proprio dalle alterazioni morfometriche riscontrate.
Come precendentemente discusso, il campione clinico, seppur globalmente accomunato da una breve durata di malattia, includeva pochi soggetti con durata di malattia maggiore, aspetto che potrebbe rivelarsi confondente dal punto di vista statistico.
Il fatto che si tratti di una popolazione clinica ospedalizzata, con necessità di un regime di cura intensivo (Ricovero Ospedaliero o Day Hospital) sottende una gravità delle condizioni fisiche e/o psicopatologiche, e questo può rappresentare un bias nello studio di tale patologia, anche per la contestuale relativamente elevata percentuale di pazienti che necessita dell’assunzione di terapia farmacologica e per la presenza di comorbidità psichiatrica che, sebbene costituisca un aspetto caratteristico di questa patologia, può vere effetti confondenti nello studio dei volumi cerebrali.
5 Conclusioni
Dai risultati del nostro studio di Voxel Based Morphometry, condotto su un campione di pazienti adolescenti affette da Anoressia Nervosa, sottotipo restrittivo (AN-R) con un
56
gruppo di controllo appaiato per sesso ed età, si conferma innanzitutto un coinvolgimento globale della sostanza grigia (GM), il cui volume risulta diminuito nei pazienti AN-R rispetto al gruppo di controllo, con contestuale aumento liquorale. Tali alterazioni correlano con un minor indice di massa corporea (BMI) nelle pazienti esaminate, a sottenderne una verosimile natura pseudoatrofica conseguente allo stato di malnutrizione. Il mancato riscontro di alterazioni macrostrutturali a carico della sostanza bianca (WM) conferma la minor suscettibilità della WM, rispetto alla GM, agli effetti della malnutrizione e alle variazioni ponderali. Non si può tuttavia escludere la presenza di alterazioni microstrutturali della sostanza bianca, indagabili con metodologie diagnostiche più specifiche, quali il DTI.
Le diminuzioni di volume di sostanza grigia a livello regionale interessano aree di rilievo nella fisiopatologia dell’AN-R. Anche in tal caso le alterazioni correlano con un minor BMI delle pazienti. Mentre i risultati relativi al cervelletto sono più facilmente leggibili come secondari alla condizione di malnutrizione dei soggetti esaminati, a causa della suscettibilità intrinseca di questa regione a fattori ambientali, specialmente durante il periodo critico di sviluppo che è l’adolescenza, maggiori interrogativi sorgono nell’interpretazione dei risultati che vedono il coinvolgimento delle regioni frontali e parietali, a causa della loro implicazione in processi cognitivi che sottendono e alimentano la psicopatologia dell’AN. Un’affascinante chiave di lettura è che un’alterazione secondaria ai danni derivati dalla malnutrizione e al conseguente calo ponderale possa – in aree specifiche – divenire fattore di mantenimento della patologia in questione, rafforzando schemi cognitivi e comportamentali disfunzionali.
Tali ipotesi sono sostenute dalla correlazione delle alterazioni volumetriche riscontrate con il BMI in assenza di correlazioni con le dimensioni psicopatologiche esplorate.
Ciononostante, dall’analisi dei dati in nostro possesso, si conferma l’importanza della dimensione psicopatologica del Perfezionismo Clinico in Anoressia Nervosa, il quale risulta essere un tratto comune alle pazienti, specialmente nella sua dimensione auto- imposta, andando inoltre a rinforzare la sintomatologia depressiva, le problematiche di natura interpersonale e la gravità della sintomatologia psicopatologica globale.
Tali risultati possono essere letti nell’ottica dell’ipotesi di un imbalance cerebrale che vede la presenza di una maggior attività da parte delle aree corticali superiori responsabili del controllo cognitivo (top-down), a scapito delle regioni ventrali implicate nella decodifica di segnali enterocettivi (bottom-up).
57 Bibliografia
Achenbach T.M.; 1991. Manuals for the Child Behaviour Checklist/4-18, the Youth Self- Report and 1991 profile. Burlington, University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry. American Psychiatric Association, 2014. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-5, 5th edition.
Amianto F., Caroppo P., D’Agata F. et al.; 2013. Brain volumetric abnormalities in patients with anorexia and bulimia nervosa: a voxel-based morphometry study.
Psychiatry Res 213:210–216.
doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2013.03.010
Andersen, R.A.; 2011. Inferior parietal lobule function in spatial perception and visuomotor integration. Comprehensive Physiology; doi:10.1002/cphy.cp010512
Arcelus, J., Mitchell, A.J., Wales, J., Nielsen, S. 2011. Mortality rates in patients with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders. A meta-analysis of 36 studies. Archives of
General Psychiatry, 68(7), 724–731.
Ashburner J, Friston K.J.; 2000. Voxel-based morphometry—the methods. Neuroim; 11:805–821. doi 10.1006/nimg.2000.0582.
Aspen V., Weisman H., Nafiz N. et al.;2014 Psychiatric comorbidity in women presenting across the continuum of disordered eating. Eat Behav.;15:686-693.
Attia E., Roberto C.A., 2009. Should amenorrhea be a diagnostic criterion for anorexia nervosa? Int J Eat Disord;42(7):581–9.
Bär K-J., de la Cruz F., Berger S. et al.; 2015. Structural and functional differences in the cingulate cortex relate to disease severity in anorexia nervosa. J Psychiatry Neurosci JPN 40:269–279.
Bardone-Cone, A., Wonderlinch, S., Frost, R., Bulik, C., Mitchell, J., Uppala, S., & Simonich, H.; 2007. Perfectionism and eating disorders: Current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 384-405.
Barona M., Brown M., Clark C., Frangou S., White T., Micali N.; 2019.White matter alterations in anorexia nervosa: Evidence from a voxel-based meta-analysis. Neurosci
Biobehav Rev; 100:285-295. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.002.
Barbarich-Marsteller, N.C., Fornal, C.A., Takase, L.F., Bocarsly, M.E., Arner, C., Walsh, B.T., Jacobs, B.L.;2013. Activity-based anorexia is associated with reduced hippocampal cell proliferation in adolescent female rats. Behavioural Brain Research, 236, (1), 251– 257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2012.08.047
Bas-Hoogendam J.M. et al. 2017. Voxel-based morphometry multi-center mega-analysis of brain structure in social anxiety disorder. Neuroimage Clin.
58
Bernardoni F, King, J. A., Geisler, D., Stein, E., Jaite, C., Natsch, D, Ehrlich, S. et al. 2016. Weight restoration therapy rapidly reverses cortical thinning in anorexia nervosa: A longitudinal study. Neuroim;130: 214–22.
Besteher B., Gaser C., Nenadić I.; 2019. Brain Structure and Subclinical Symptoms: A Dimensional Perspective of Psychopathology in the Depression and Anxiety Spectrum.
Neuropsychobiology. 24:1-14. doi: 10.1159/000501024.
Björnsdotter, M., Davidovic, M., Karjalainen, L., Starck, G., Olausson, H., & Wentz, E.; 2018. Grey matter correlates of autistic traits in women with anorexia nervosa. Journal of
psychiatry & neuroscience : JPN, 43(2), 79–86. doi:10.1503/jpn.170072
Blanke O., Slater M., Serino A.; 2015. Behavioral, Neural, and Computational Principles of Bodily Self-Consciousness. Neuron.;88(1):145–166. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.09.029 Bodell L.P., Cheng Y., Wildes J.E. 2019. Psychological Impairment as a Predictor of Suicide Ideation in Individuals with Anorexia Nervosa. Suicide Life Threat Behav.; 49(2):520-528. doi: 10.1111/sltb.12459. Epub 2018 Mar 26.
Boghi A., Sterpone S., Sales S. et al.; 2011. In vivo evidence of global and focal brain alterations in anorexia nervosa. Psychiatry Res 192:154–159
Bomba M., Riva A., Veggo F., et al.; 2013. Impact of speed and magnitude of weight loss on the development of brain trophic changes in adolescents with anorexia nervosa: a case control study. Ital J Pediatr.;39: 14.
Bomba M., Riva A., Morzenti S., et al.; 2015. Global and regional brain volumes normalization in weight-recovered adolescents with anorexia nervosa: preliminary findings of a longitudinal voxel based morphometry study. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 11:637–645. doi:10.2147/NDT.S73239
Brooks S.J., Barker G.J., O’Daly O.G. et al.; 2011. Restraint of appetite and reduced regional brain volumes in anorexia nervosa: a voxel-based morphometric study. BMC
Psychiatry 11:179.
doi:10.1186/1471-244X-11-179.
Brown M., Robinson L., Campione G.C., Wuensch K., Hildebrandt T., Micali N.; 2017. Intolerance of Uncertainty in Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.
Eur Eat Disord Rev.;25(5):329–343. doi:10.1002/erv.2523
Bulik C.M.; 2005. Exploring the gene-environment nexus in eating disorders. J
Psychiatry Neurosci;30(5):335–9.
Bühren K., Schwarte R., Fluck N., et al.;2013. Comorbid psychiatric disorders in female adolescents with first-onset anorexia nervosa. Eur Eat Disorders Rev;22:39- 44.
Burkert N.T., Koschutnig K., Ebner F., Freidl W., 2015. Structural hippocampal alterations, perceived stress, and coping deficiencies in patients with anorexia nervosa. Int
59
Calderoni S., Fantozzi P., Balboni G., Pagni V., Franzoni E., Apicella F., Narzisi A., Maestro S., Muratori F.; 2015. The impact of internalizing symptoms on autistic traits in adolescents with restrictive anorexia nervosa. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat.5;11:75-85. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S73235. eCollection 2015.
Castro-Fornieles, J., Gual, P., Lahortiga, F., Gila, A., Casulà, V., Fuhrmann, C., & Toro, J.; 2007. Self-oriented perfectionism in eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord, 40, 562-568. Castro-Fornieles J, et al.; 2009. A cross-sectional and follow-up voxel-based morphometric MRI study in adolescent anorexia nervosa. J Psychiatr Res.; 43(3):331-40 Clausen, L., Rosenvinge, J. H., Friborg, O., & Rokkedal, K.; 2011. Validating the Eating Disorder Inventory-3 (EDI-3): A comparison between 561 female eating disorders patients and 878 females from the general population. Journal of Psychopathology and
Behavioral Assessment, 33(1), 101–110. doi: 10.1007/s10862-010-9207-4
Chui H.T., Christensen B.K., Zipursky R.B. et al.; 2008. Cognitive function and brain structure in females with a history of adolescent-onset anorexia nervosa. Pediatrics 122:e426–e437
Coelho J. S., Lee T., Karnabi P., Burns A., Marshall S., Geller J., Lam PY.; 2018. Eating disorders in biological males: clinical presentation and consideration of sex differences in a pediatric sample. J Eat Disord; 6: 40.
Collantoni E., Michelon S., Tenconi E., Degortes D., Titton F., Manara R. et al.; 2016. Functional connectivity correlates of response inhibition impairment in anorexia nervosa.
Psychiatry Res, 247:9–16.
Connan F., Murphy F., Connor S.E. et al.; 2006. Hippocampal volume and cognitive function in anorexia nervosa. Psychiatry Res 146:117–125
Cuzzolaro M., Vetrone G., Marano G., Battacchi M.W.: BUT: una nuova scala per la valutazione del disagio relativo all'immagine del corpo. Psichiatria dell'Infanzia e dell'Adolescenza, 66, 417-428, 1999.
D’Agata F., Caroppo P., Amianto F. et al.; 2015. Brain correlates of alexithymia in eating disorders: a voxel-based morphometry study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 69:708–716. doi:10.1111/pcn.12318
Davey, C.G., Harrison, B.J., Yucel, M., Allen, N.B.; 2012. Regionally specific alterations in functional connectivity of the anterior cingulate cortex in major depressive disorder.
Psychol Med.;42(10):2071–2081. doi:10.1017/S0033291712000323
Davis H, Attia E.; 2017. Pharmacotherapy of eating disorders. Curr Opin Psychiatry, Epub.
Dixon D.P., Ackert A.M., Eckel L.A.; 2003. Development of, and recovery from, activity-based anorexia in female rats. Physiol Behav 80: 273–279.
60
Egan, S., Wade, T., & Shafran, R.; 2011. Perfectionism as a transdiagnostic process: A clinical review. Clinical Psychology Review; 31, 203-212. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.009.
Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., Doll, H. A., & Welch, S. L. (1999). Risk factors for anorexia nervosa: three integrated case control comparisons. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 468–476.
Faravelli C., Ravaldi C., Truglia E., Zucchi T., Cosci F., Ricca V.;2006. Clinical epidemiology of eating disorders: results from the Sesto Fiorentino study. Psychother
Psychosom.; 75(6):376-83.
Favaro A , Caregaro L , Tenconi E , et al.; 2009. Time trends in age at onset of anorexia nervosa and Bulimia nervosa. J Clin Psychiatry;70:1715–21.
Ferrari M.C., Busatto G.F., McGuire P.K., Crippa J.A., 2008. Structural magnetic resonance imaging in anxiety disorders: an update of research findings. Braz J
Psychiatry.;30(3):251-64
Favaro A, Tenconi E, Degortes D et al.; 2014. Effects of obstetric complications on volume and functional connectivity of striatum in anorexia nervosa patients. Int J Eat
Disord 47:686–695. doi:10.1002/eat.22320
Favaro A., Tenconi E., Degortes D., Manara R., Santonastaso P.; 2015. Gyrification brain abnormalities as predictors of outcome in anorexia nervosa. Hum Brain Mapp.; 36:5113– 5122.
Flamarique I., Plana M.T., Castro-Fornieles J., Borràs R., Moreno E., Lázaro L; 2019. Comparison of Perfectionism Dimensions in Adolescents with Anorexia Nervosa or Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. PMID 31447902. Flett G. L., Hewitt P. L., Boucher D. J., Davidson L. A., Munro Y.; 1997. The child– adolescent perfectionism scale: Development, validation, and association with adjustment. Unpublished manuscript.
Flett, G., Hewitt, P., Besser, A., Su, C., Vaillancort, T., Boucher, D.,..Gate, O. (2016). The child-adolescent perfectionism scale: Development, psychometric properties, and associations with stress, distress and psychiatric symptoms. J Psychoeduc Assess, 34, 634-652. Doi:10.1177/0734282916651381.
Foerde K., Steinglass J.E.; 2017. Decreased feedback learning in anorexia nervosa persists after weight restoration. Int J Eat Disord; 50(4):415-423.
Fonville L., Giampietro V., Williams S.C.R., Simmons A., Tchanturia K.; 2014. Alterations in brain structure in adults with anorexia nervosa and the impact of illness duration. Psychol Med 44:1965–1975. doi:10.1017/S0033291713002389
Frank G.K., Shott M.E., Hagman J.O., Mittal V.A.; 2013. Alterations in brain structures related to taste reward circuitry in ill and recovered anorexia nervosa and in bulimia nervosa. Am J Psychiatry 170:1152–1160. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12101294
Frank G.K.W., 2015. Recent advances in neuroimaging to model eating disorder neurobiology. Curr Psychiatry Rep.; 17:559
61
Frank G.K.W., 2016; The perfect storm—a bio-psycho-social risk model for developing and maintaining eating disorders. Front Behav Neurosci; 10:44.
Frank GKW, Favaro A, Marsh R, et al.; 2018. Toward valid and reliable brain imaging results in eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord. ;51(3):250–61. 10.1002/eat.22829
Frank G.K.W., Shott M.E., DeGuzman M.C.; 2019. Recent advances in understanding anorexia nervosa. F1000Res.;8. pii: F1000 Faculty Rev-504. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.17789.1. eCollection 2019.
Franko D.L., Keel P.K. 2006. Suicidality in eating disorders: occurrence, correlates, and clinical implications. Clin Psychol Rev;26(6):769-82.
Freund, W., Faust, S., Gaser, C., Gron, G., Birklein, F., Wunderlich, A. P., Schutz, U. H. 2014 Regionally accentuated reversible brain grey matter reduction in ultra marathon runners detected by voxel-based morphometry. BMC Sports Science, Medicine &
Rehabilitation, 6(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/2052-1847-6-4
Friederich, H. C., Herzog, W.; 2011. Cognitive-behavioral flexibility in anorexia nervosa.
Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci;6, 111 -113
Friederich H.C., Walther S., Bendszus M., Biller A., Thomann P., Zeigermann S., Katus T., Brunner R., Zastrow A., Herzog W.; 2012. Grey matter abnormalities within cortico- limbic-striatal circuits in acute and weight-restored anorexia nervosa patients. Neuroim.; 59(2):1106-13.
Friederich H.C., Wu M., Simon J.J., Herzog W.; 2013. Neurocircuit function in eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord.;46(5):425–432. doi:10.1002/eat.22099
Frintrop L., et al.; 2018. Reduced astrocyte density underlying brain volume reduction in activity-based anorexia rats. World J Biol Psychiatry; 19(3): 225–35.
Giordano G.D., Renzetti P., Parodi R.C. et al.; 2001. Volume measurement with magnetic resonance imaging of hippocampus-amygdala.formation in patients with anorexia nervosa. J Endocrinol Invest 24:510–514
Gaudio S., Nocchi F., Franchin T. et al.; 2011. Gray matter decrease distribution in the early stages of Anorexia Nervosa restrictive type in adolescents. Psychiatry Res 191:24– 30
Gluck M.E., Viswanath P., Stinson E.J.. Obesity, Appetite, and the Prefrontal Cortex. 2017; Curr Obes Rep.;6(4):380–388. doi:10.1007/s13679-017-0289-0
Harris E.C., Barraclough B., 1998. Excess mortality of mental disorder. Br J
Psychiatry;173:11–53.
Hart, S., Abraham, S., Franklin, R. C., & Russell, J.; 2011. The reasons why eating disorder patients drink. European Eating Disorders Review, 19(2), 121–128. ttps://doi.org/10.1002/erv.1051
Hamatani S., Tomotake M., Takeda T., et al.; 2018. Impaired central coherence in patients with anorexia nervosa. Psychiatry Res.;259:77–80. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.09.086
62
Heidrich R, Schmidt-Matthias H. Encephalographic findings in anorexia nervosa. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkrankh Ver Mit Z Gesamte Neurol Psychiatr. 1961;202:183–201.
Herpertz-Dahlmann B.; 2008. Adolescent eating disorders: definitions, symptomatology, epidemiology and comorbidity. Child Adol. Psych. Cl.;18: 31–47.
Himmerich H, Au K, Dornik J, et al. 2017. Olanzapine Treatment for Patients with Anorexia Nervosa. Can J Psychiatry; 62:506-507.
Hikosaka O., Isoda M.; 2010. Switching from automatic to controlled behavior: cortico- basal ganglia mechanisms. Trends Cogn Sci.;14(4):154–161.
doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.01.006
Hoang U., Goldacre M., James A. 2014. Mortality following hospital discharge with a diagnosis of eating disorder: national record linkage study, England, 2001– 2009. International Journal of Eating Disorders; 47:507–515
Holliday J., Tchanturia K., Landau S., Collier D., Treasure J., 2005. Is impaired set- shifting an endophenotype of anorexia nervosa? Am J Psychiatry.;162(12):2269-75. Jagielska G., Kacperska I.; 2017. Outcome, comorbidity and prognosis in anorexia nervosa. Psychiatr Pol.;51(2):205–218. doi:10.12740/PP/64580
Joos A., Hartmann A., Glauche V., Perlov E., Unterbrink T., Saum B., Tuscher O., Tebartz van Elst L., Zeeck A.; 2011. Grey matter deficit in long-term recovered anorexia nervosa patients. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 19:59–63.
Katzman, D. K., Zipursky, R. B., Lambe, E. K. & Mikulis, D. 1997. A longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study of brain changes in adolescents with anorexia nervosa.
Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 151(8):793–797.
Kaufman J., Birmaher B., Brent D., et al. Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children–Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADSPL): initial reliability and validity data. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997; 36:980- 988
Kerr K.L., Moseman S.E., Avery J.A., Bodurka J., Zucker N.L., Simmons W.K.; 2016. Altered Insula Activity during Visceral Interoception in Weight-Restored Patients with
Anorexia Nervosa. Neuropsychopharmacology.;41(2):521–528.
doi:10.1038/npp.2015.174
Kerr-Gaffney J., Harrison A., Tchanturia K.. Cognitive and Affective Empathy in Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. 2019. Front Psychiatry; 10:102. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00102
Keski-Rahkonen A., Mustelin L.; 2016. Epidemiology of eating disorders in Europe: prevalence, incidence, comorbidity, course, consequences, and risk factors. Curr Opin
63
Khalsa S.S., Portnoff L.C., McCurdy-McKinnon D., et al.; 2017 What happens after treatment? A systematic review of relapse, remission, and recovery in anorexia nervosa. J
Eat Disord.;5:20. 10.1186/s40337-017-0145-3
King, J. A., Geisler, D., Ritschel, F., Boehm, I., Seidel, M., Roschinski, B., . . .Ehrlich, S.;2015. Global cortical thinning in acute anorexia nervosa normalizes following long- term weight restoration. Biological Psychiatry, 77(7), 624–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.09.00
King J.A., Frank G.K.W., Thompson P.M., Ehrlich S.; 2018. Structural Neuroimaging of Anorexia Nervosa: Future Directions in the Quest for Mechanisms Underlying Dynamic Alterations. Biol. Psychiatry. 1;83(3):224-234. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.08.011.
Klump, K.L., Strober, M., Bulik, C.M., Thornton, L., Johnson, C., Devlin, B., Kaye, W.H.;2004. Personality characteristics of women before after recovery from an eating disorder. Psychological Medicine, 34(8), 1407–1418.
Kohlmeyer K., Lehmkuhl G., Poutska F.; 1983. Computed tomography of anorexia nervosa. Am J Neuroradiol; 4:437–438.
Koerner N., Mejia .T, Kusec A.; 2017. What's in a name? Intolerance of uncertainty, other uncertainty-relevant constructs, and their differential relations to worry and generalized anxiety disorder. Cogn Behav Ther.;46(2):141–161. doi:10.1080/16506073.2016.1211172.
Krug A., Cabanis M., Pyka M., et al.; 2014. Investigation of decision-making under uncertainty in healthy subjects: a multi-centric fMRI study. Behav Brain Res;261:89–96. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2013.12.013
Lang K., Lopez C., Stahl D., Tchanturia K., Treasure J. Central coherence in eating disorders: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. 2014. World J Biol
Psychiatry;15(8):586–598. doi:10.3109/15622975.2014.909606
Lavagnino L., Amianto F., Mwangi B., D’Agata F., Spalatro A., Zunta Soares G.B., et al., 2016. The relationship between cortical thickness and body mass index differs between women with anorexia nervosa and healthy controls. Psychiatry Res.; 248:105–109
Lavagnino L., Mwangi B., Cao B., Shott M.E., Soares J.C., Frank G.K.W.; 2018. Cortical thickness patterns as state biomarker of anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord.;51(3):241– 249. doi:10.1002/eat.22828
Lavretsky, H., Roybal, D. J., Ballmaier, M., Toga, A. W. & Kumar, A.; 2005.Antidepressant exposure may protect against decrement in frontal gray matter volumes in geriatric depression. J. Clin. Psychiatry; 66, 964–967
Longe O., Maratos F.A., Gilbert P., et al; 2010. Having a word with yourself: neural correlates of self-criticism and self-reassurance. Neuroimage.; 49(2):1849–1856. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.09.019
64
Lopez C., Tchanturia K., Stahl D., Treasure J.; 2009. Weak central coherence in eating disorders: a step towards looking for an endophenotype of eating disorders. J Clin Exp
Neuropsychol;31(1):117-25. doi: 10.1080/13803390802036092.
Lowinger, K., Griffiths, R. A., Beumont, P. J., Scicluna, H., & Touyz, S. W.; 1999. Fluid restriction in anorexia nervosa: A neglected symptom or new phenomenon? International
Journal of Eating Disorders, 26(4), 392–396.
Mainz V., Schulte-Ru¨ther M., Fink G.R. et al.; 2012. Structural brain abnormalities in adolescent anorexia nervosa before and after weight recovery and associated hormonal changes. Psychosom Med 74:574–582. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e31824ef10e
Marsh, R., Stefan, M., Bansal, R., Hao, X., Walsh, B. T., & Peterson, B. S.; 2015. Anatomical characteristics of the cerebral surface in bulimia nervosa. Biological
Psychiatry, 77(7), 616–623. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.biopsych.2013.07.017
Martin Monzon, B., Henderson, L.A., Madden, S., Macefield, V.G., Touyz, S., Kohn, M.R., Clarke, S., Foroughi, N., Hay. P.; 2017. Grey matter volume in adolescents with anorexia nervosa and associated eating disorder symptoms Eur J Neurosci.;46(7):2297- 2307. doi: 10.1111/ejn.13659.
Marzola E., Desedime N., Giovannone C., et al.; 2015. Atypical antipsychotics as augmentation therapy in anorexia nervosa. PLoS One.;10:e0125569
McCormick L.M., Keel P.K., Brumm M.C. et al.; 2008. Implications of starvation- induced change in right dorsal anterior cingulate volume in anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat
Disord 41:602–610
Mcfadden, K.L., Tregellas, J.R., Shott, M.E.; Frank, G.K.; 2014. Reduced salience and default mode network activity in women with anorexia nervosa. J. Psychiatr. Neurosci. Jpn. 39, 178
Muhlau M., Gaser C., Ilg R. et al.; 2007. Gray matter decrease of the anterior cingulate cortex in anorexia nervosa. Am J Psychiatry 164:1850–1857
Micali N., DeStavola B., Ploubidis G., et al. 2015. Adolescent eating disorder behaviours and cognitions: gender-specific effects of child, maternal and family risk factors. Br J
Psychiatry; 207:320–327.
Miniati M., Benvenuti A., Bologna E., et al.; 2016. Mood spectrum comorbidity in patients with anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Eat Weight Disord., Epub.
Moncrieff J., Leo J., 2010. A systematic review of the effects of antipsychotic drugs on brain volume. Psychol Med.;40(9):1409-22. doi: 10.1017/S0033291709992297
Moreira P.S., Marques P., Soriano-Mas C., Magalhães R., Sousa N., Soares J.M., Morgado P.; 2017. The neural correlates of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a multimodal perspective. Transl Psychiatry. Aug 29;7(8):e1224. doi: 10.1038/tp.2017.189.
65
Navari S., Dazzan P.;2009. Do antipsychotic drugs affect brain structure? A systematic and critical review of MRI findings. Psychol Med. 2009; 39:1763–1777.
Nico D., Daprati E., Nighoghossian N., Carrier E., Duhamel J.R., Sirigu A.; 2010. The role of the right parietal lobe in anorexia nervosa. Psychol Med.;40(9):1531–1539. doi:10.1017/S0033291709991851
Oldershaw A., Startup H., Lavender T.; 2019. Anorexia Nervosa and a Lost Emotional Self: A Psychological Formulation of the Development, Maintenance, and Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa. Front Psychol;10: 219. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00219
Palazidou, E., Robinson, P., Lishman, W.A.; 1990. Neuroradiological and neuropsychological assessment in anorexia nervosa. Psychological Medicin, 20(3):521– 527.
Papadopoulos, F.C., Ekbom, A., Brandt L., Ekselius, L.;2009 Excess mortality, causes of death and prognostic factors in anorexia nervosa. Br J Psychiatry J Ment Sci; 194:10–17. Petkova H., Simic M., Nicholls D., Ford T., Prina A.M., Stuart R., Livingstone N., Kelly G., Macdonald G., Eisler I., Gowers S., Barrett B.M., Byford S; 2019. Incidence of anorexia nervosa in young people in the UK and Ireland: a national surveillance study.
BMJ Open. 22;9(10):e027339. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2018-027339
Phillipou A., Rossell S.L., Castle D.J. 2014. The neurobiology of anorexia nervosa: A systematic review. Aust N Z J Psychiatry;48:128–152.
Phillipou, A., Rossell, S. L., Gurvich, C., Castle, D. J., Abel, L. A., Nibbs, R. G., & Hughes, M. E.; 2018. Differences in regional grey matter volumes in currently ill patients with anorexia nervosa. European Journal of Neuroscience;47(2), 177–183. doi:10.1111/ejn.13793
Poldrack, R. A., Baker, C. I., Durnez, J., Gorgolewski, K. J., Matthews, P. M., Munafo, M. R., ... Yarkoni, T. (2017). Scanning the horizon: Towards transparent and reproducible neuroimaging research. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 18(2), 115–126. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2016.167
Preti A., Girolamo G., Vilagut G., Alonso J., Graaf R., Bruffaerts R., Demyttenaere K., Pinto-Meza A., Haro J.M., Morosini P.; ESEMeD-WMH Investigators; 2009. The epidemiology of eating disorders in six European countries: results of the ESEMeD- WMH project. J Psychiatr Res.;43(14):1125-32. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.04.003 Preti, A., Rocchi, M. B., Sisti, D., Camboni, M. V., Miotto, P. 2011. A comprehensive meta-analysis of the risk of suicide in eating disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 124(1), 6–17.
Reas D.L., Rø Øyvind; 2018. Time trends in healthcare‐detected incidence of anorexia nervosa and Bulimia nervosa in the Norwegian national patient register (2010–2016). Int
J Eat Disord;51:1144–52
Routtenberg A., Kuznesof A.W.; 1967. Self-starvation of rats living in activity wheels on a restricted feeding schedule. J Comp Physiol Psychol. 64:414–4213.
66
Salat D.H., Buckner R.L., Snyder A.Z., Greve D.N., Desikan R.S., Busa E., et al. (2004):