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CNN-based fast source device identification

Sara Mandelli, Davide Cozzolino, Member, IEEE, Paolo Bestagini, Member, IEEE,

Luisa Verdoliva, Senior Member, IEEE, and Stefano Tubaro, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—Source identification is an important topic in image

forensics, since it allows to trace back the origin of an image. This

represents a precious information to claim intellectual property

but also to reveal the authors of illicit materials. In this paper

we address the problem of device identification based on sensor

noise and propose a fast and accurate solution using convolutional

neural networks (CNNs). Specifically, we propose a

2-channel-based CNN that learns a way of comparing camera fingerprint

and image noise at patch level. The proposed solution turns out to

be much faster than the conventional approach and to ensure an

increased accuracy. This makes the approach particularly

suit-able in scenarios where large databases of images are analyzed,

like over social networks. In this vein, since images uploaded on

social media usually undergo at least two compression stages,

we include investigations on double JPEG compressed images,

always reporting higher accuracy than standard approaches.

I. I

NTRODUCTION

I

N this paper, we tackle the problem of image source

de-vice identification. State-of-the-art solutions rely on photo

response non-uniformity (PRNU) [1], a characteristic noise

trace left by the camera sensor on all acquired images. PRNU

is caused by imperfections in the sensor manufacturing process

and represents a unique pattern noise associated to a certain

device. It can be used both to trace the exact origin of an

image and to establish its integrity [2], [3].

The classic pipeline is based on the availability of a number

of images coming from the same device in order to carry out a

reliable PRNU estimation. Then, the image under test can be

compared with the sensor fingerprint through denoising and

peak to correlation energy (PCE) computation [4]. However,

computing the PCE between a query image noise and a

finger-print might be computationally expensive, and may become a

major bottleneck when source identification requires scanning

huge databases of device fingerprints [5], [6], [7]. With the

increasing resolution of digital sensors, the search time may

become prohibitive even for a moderate fingerprint database.

S. Mandelli, P. Bestagini and S. Tubaro are with the Dipartimento di

Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, Milano

20133, Italy (e-mail: name.surname@polimi.it).

D. Cozzolino is with the Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettrica e Tecnologie

dell’Informazione, University Federico II of Naples, 80125 Naples, Italy

(e-mail: davide.cozzolino@unina.it).

L. Verdoliva is with the Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, University

Federico II of Naples, 80125 Naples, Italy (e-mail: verdoliv@unina.it).

This material is based on research sponsored by DARPA and AFRL under

agreement number FA8750-16-2-0173. The U.S. Government is authorized to

reproduce and distribute reprints for Governmental purposes notwithstanding

any copyright notation thereon. The views and conclusions contained herein

are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily

rep-resenting the official policies or endorsements, either expressed or implied,

of DARPA and AFRL or the U.S. Government. This work was supported

by the PREMIER project, funded by the Italian Ministry of Education,

University, and Research within the PRIN 2017 program. Hardware support

was generously provided by the NVIDIA Corporation.

To manage large image databases some methods look for

compressed or alternative representations of the sensor noise.

One of the first methods introduces the concept of fingerprint

digest: for each query fingerprint, only pixels with the largest

magnitude are extracted [8]. Instead, in [9] the idea is to reduce

the resolution of PRNU values by quantizing them into a single

bit, while in [10] a composite fingerprint is introduced. In [11]

compression is obtained using random projections followed

by binary quantization of the projected values, and in [12]

this technique is investigated for JPEG images. Alternatively,

in [13] a tree-like search strategy is designed to split PRNU

matching problem into a series of sub-problems.

We consider an alternative approach to compare PRNUs

and test images by leveraging convolutional neural networks

(CNNs) to achieve good performance on small image patches.

Notice that relying on small patches makes PRNU-based

forgery localization possible. Moreover, it enables analyses

on social networks, where images are often available only

in cropped formats. CNNs have been already successfully

applied for camera model identification [14], [15], for tracing

the origin of an image in a social network [16] or for PRNU

anonymization [17]. However, less attention has been devoted

to PRNU-based device identification. Only recently, in [18]

sensor noise extraction has been improved by using a

residual-based deep learning process that replaces the standard agnostic

denoising procedure.

In this paper, we devise a data-driven approach for source

identification based on PRNU and consider the scenario in

which PRNU and images are geometrically synchronized.

Differently from [18], our goal is to replace the PCE test

in favour of an alternative method based on CNNs. Using

deep learning to compare patches is a powerful approach [19].

It has been recently proposed for forensics applications in

[20], [21], [22] by means of Siamese networks, in order to

learn distinctive data representations that highlight

camera-based artifacts. Unlike [19], our solution does not compare

directly raw image pixels, but work on noise residuals. In

our scenario, patches to be compared are extracted from the

estimated PRNU and the noise residual of the test image,

which do not possess any type of periodicity and are hard to

compress. For this reason, we avoid embedded representations

and rely on the whole original information, by proposing a

network architecture that learns the best similarity function for

source identification. Specifically, we design a 2-channel-based

CNN, which, through proper training, is able to learn the best

way to compare patches for device identification. We propose

a shallow CNN architecture which turns out to be faster

and more accurate than standard PCE approach. Furthermore,

deeper CNNs are also investigated, enabling to achieve even

better accuracy if processing time is not a constraint.

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W

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K

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P

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Fig. 1. Scheme of the proposed pair-wise correlation network (PCN).

II. P

ROPOSED METHOD

Given a set of images coming from device

d, it is possible

to estimate the device PRNU

K

d

through denoising and

maximum-likelihood estimation [1], [2]. Given a test image

I, the noise residual W can be extracted using a

denoising-based procedure [2]. Standard PRNU-denoising-based device attribution

methods compare

W and K

d

in order to detect a possible

match [4]. In this work, we propose to perform this comparison

through a CNN. For each pair of query image

I and candidate

device

d, we feed K

d

and

W to the CNN, assuming they

are geometrically synchronized. The network returns a

CNN-based identification score

C

s

which is directly associated to

the coherence between the image and the device. Analyzing

C

s

we can infer whether

I belongs to d or not.

A. Network architectures

As the proposed 2-channel-based approach is independent

from the used CNN, we investigate different architectures.

With the specific purpose of testing a shallow network

enabling fast computations, the first proposed architecture

is drawn using only

3 convolutional layers as depicted in

Fig. 1. Then, a pair-wise correlation pooling layer and a

fully-connected layer follow to obtain a single score

C

s

. The

pair-wise correlation pooling layer is inspired to the conventional

metrics used to identify the source device on images, i.e.,

normalized cross-correlation and PCE. Since these are based

on cross-correlation between noise residual and PRNU, the

pair-wise correlation pooling computes a correlation as well

between pairs of input features. Being

P

3

the input of the

pair-wise correlation pooling, the output of the layer is defined as:

[P

4

]

n

=

1

P

2

3

P

3

X

p

i

=1

P

3

X

p

j

=1

[P

3

]

p

i

,p

j

,2n−1

· [P

3

]

p

i

,p

j

,2n

, n

∈ [1, 32],

(1)

where

n is the channel index. The pair-wise correlation

pooling layer can be seen as a simplified version of bilinear

pooling layer [23]. Actually, bilinear pooling computes the

correlation between all the features maps, whereas pair-wise

pooling evaluate this only for adjacent pairs of features.

The main motivation behind pair-wise pooling is to provide

fast computations. Indeed, evaluating the complete

cross-correlation between all feature maps may be time-consuming.

The other networks we propose are known in literature as

Inception-ResNet V2 [24] and EfficientNet models [25], which

achieve very good results in computer vision tasks. Differently

from the first solution which is trained from scratch, we

initialize the network weights of EfficientNet and Inception

models using the weights trained on Imagenet database [26].

CNN-based

similarity

CNN-based

similarity

C

oh

er

en

t

pa

ir

N

on

-c

oh

er

en

t

pa

ir

Fig. 2. Sketch of the proposed training strategy. For every device d ∈ D

T

,

the network is fed using noise residuals coming from device d, paired with

PRNU K

d

(coherent pair) and with PRNU K

d

¯

coming from a different device

(non-coherent pair). The CNN is able to learn a similarity measure C

s

for

the source identification task.

For brevity’s sake, we hereafter investigate three

Efficient-Net models with increasing depth [25]: B0, B2 and B4.

We denote the networks as PCN (Pair-wise Correlation Net),

EFFB0, EFFB2, EFFB4 (EfficientNet) and INC (Inception).

B. Network training

To train the network, we assume that a set

D

T

of

N

d

devices

is available. For each device, we assume having a PRNU

estimate

K

d

(obtained from a set of flat-field images) as well

as a set of natural images. From each natural image belonging

to device

d, we extract the noise residue W

d

.

As shown in Fig. 2, the network is trained by concurrently

feeding it with coherent pairs (i.e., PRNU and residue of the

same device), and non-coherent pairs (i.e., PRNU and residue

of diverse devices). In order to provide both coherent and

non-coherent cases for each device inside one batch of data, we

consider a batch-size of twice the cardinality of

D

T

. For every

d

∈ D

T

, the coherent pair

(K

d

, W

d

) is created by randomly

picking

W

d

from the set of residues of device

d, while the

non-coherent pair

(K

d

¯

, W

d

) takes K

d

¯

from another device ¯

d

different from

d, ¯

d

∈ D

T

.

As far as the loss function is concerned, we face the problem

as a binary classification problem, adopting the standard

sigmoid cross-entropy loss. In other words, label

1 is assigned

to coherent pairs and label

0 otherwise. The network learns to

return a score

C

s

, which is high for coherent pairs and low

for non-coherent ones. We stop the training when the accuracy

(i.e., the fraction of correct predictions) over the validation

set is maximized. We use Adam optimization algorithm [27]

with learning rate and patience initialized at

0.001 and 30,

respectively, for a maximum number of

500 epochs.

C. Network deployment

Once the CNN is trained, we can use it in two scenarios:

closed-set

scenario: given an image, we aim at identifying

the source among a finite pool of devices;

open-set

scenario: given an image and a candidate device,

we aim at inferring if the device shot that image or not.

To solve these problems, we always feed the network with

pairs of PRNU and image residue. Notice that, despite the

CNN is trained over a specific set of devices

D

T

, it can be

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