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Breadwinner’s Education and Household’s Income in India

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(1)International Journal of Statistics and Economics; [Formerly known as the “Bulletin of Statistics & Economics” (ISSN 0973-7022)]; ISSN 0975-556X; Year: 2018, Volume: 19, Issue Number: 2; Int. j. stat. econ.; Copyright © 2018 by International Journal of Statistics and Economics.   %UHDGZLQQHU¶V(GXFDWLRQDQG+RXVHKROG¶V,QFRPHLQ,QGLD.  . 00LJKHOL.  8QLYHUVLW\RI7RULQR'HSDUWPHQWRI(FRQRPLFVDQG6WDWLVWLFV ³&RJQHWWLGH0DUWLLV´OXQJR'RUD6LHQD,± 7RULQR,WDO\7HO (PDLOPDWWHRPLJKHOL#XQLWRLW   &H53±&ROOHJLR&DUOR$OEHUWRYLD5HDO&ROOHJLR ,±0RQFDOLHUL,WDO\. .  . $%675$&7. . I examine the relationship between the level of education of a household breadwinner and the relative position on a ten-digit scale of household total income. The dataset allows for avoiding usual sample selection biases. Using data from India, I show that the education of the breadwinner is a good predictor of the income of the household. The contribution of secondary and tertiary education is positive, and this result is strong especially for the self-employed. The data suggest also that an increase in inequality among self-employed appears more likely than among part time and full time employees.. .H\ZRUGV,QGLDLQFRPHHGXFDWLRQEUHDGZLQQHU -(/&ODVVLILFDWLRQ',5 0DWKHPDWLFV6XEMHFW&ODVVLILFDWLRQ3       ,1752'8&7,21 7KH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ LQGLYLGXDO HGXFDWLRQ DQG LQFRPH LQ GHYHORSLQJ FRXQWULHV KDV EHHQ ZLGHO\ VWXGLHG 7KH H[WDQW ZRUNV FRYHU $VLDQ FRXQWULHV VHH %HKUPDQ  *OHZZH DQG -DFRE\  +DZOH\6HOLP

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