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CHAPTER 2.
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING
2.1 The global village
Nowadays, people acquire a second language during “a time of ‘the global village’ and the ‘World Wide Web’, when communication between people has expanded way beyond their local speech communities” (Ellis, 1997, p. 3). People do not communicate with others only by face-to-face communication, but also via the Internet. Communication forms relationships between people and facilitates the spread of knowledge. Speech communities, that are groups of “people who can all understand each other when they speak” (Corder, 1973, p. 51), have become larger, thanks to the openness of the web. It has become incredibly easy to interact with others. The Internet supports the idea of a unified global community.
The ease with which the web creates complex connections has important implications for forming new speech communities. People living in this global village stretch their communication across nations and beyond oceans. They go beyond their local speech communities and neighbourhood and need to learn new languages. This new reality changes sociological structures within the context of culture, defined as the ideas, customs, and social behaviour of a particular people or society.1 Language is a key aspect of human behaviour.
Following Lochtman and Kappel (2008), language and culture are closely interweaved, meaning that it is impossible to teach language without culture. Learning a second language implies more than just learning the vocabulary and the grammar of a target language. Language learning involves also being aware of the habits and attitudes of the speakers of that second language.
1 CULTURE. (2017). Oxford Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Oxforddictionaries.com. Retrieved 8 May 2017, from
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2.2 Goals of second language acquisition
It is important to understand what is actually meant by second language acquisition (SLA). SLA is both the process by which people learn a second language and the scientific discipline studying that process. It is a relatively recent phenomenon, that emerged in the second half of the twentieth century. Within the field of applied linguistics, SLA can be collocated as a subdiscipline. It receives attention, though, from other disciplines as well, such as education and psychology.
Ellis (1997) draws attention to the fact that ‘second’ refers to any language that is learned subsequent to the mother tongue and that it is not intended to contrast with ‘foreign’. This means that SLA can refer to the acquisition of a third or even a fourth language and that a language can be learned through instruction or by coming naturally in contact with it, that is to say also outside the classroom.
There seems to be a need to discover more about how second language learners acquire a target language. The first step to make it possible to study language learning is collecting language learners’ data. This can be done in several different ways. One approach is to interview language learners who have been successful in learning a second language about how they did it. Unfortunately, learners cannot always remember the learning processes they have been through, or they simply are not aware of them. Another approach is to gather samples of learner language, that is the language that learners produce when they try to use the target language they are learning. These samples can be collected from both written and spoken language.
After having collected language samples, researchers must decide whether to describe SLA or to explain it. Linguists have mainly concentrated on description, that is on the formal features of language. Corder (1973) opposes this decision:
3 Linguists, especially, often talk about how language ‘works’, as if it were an object like an alarm clock, whose functioning could be understood from a study of its internal structure of springs and cogwheels. It is significant that while a study of the internal structure of a clock will tell you how it works, it won’t tell you what clocks are for.
Another goal of SLA is thus the explanation of the development of the learner’s overall ability to communicate. This implies identifying the internal and external factors that clarify why language learners acquire a second language in the way they do.
2.3 Variability in learner language
As discussed in Chapter 1, language learning is systematic and variable. Corder (1981) affirms that variation can be found in one of the “three elements of the learning situation: the learner, the setting, and the language involved” (p.76). The learners’ language can vary in character in accordance with the linguistic, social, and psycholinguistic context. Learners can also show individual differences in the attempt to use a second language.
2.3.1 Input and output
The principal factor that affects second language learning is the input that the learners receive, that is “the samples of language to which a learner is exposed” (Ellis, 1997, p. 5). It is obvious that second language learning cannot happen without some input. What type of input actually facilitates learning is a disputed question.
According to Krashen (1981), second language learners benefit more from authentic language, that is native language data. The evidence for this strong position comes from studies demonstrating that the longer a learner stays in a foreign country, the higher his proficiency level will be. Also reading authentic
4 texts of the target language has been shown to have positive effects on second language learning.
Following other researchers, focusing on comprehension, second language learners benefit more from input that has been simplified for them. Gass and Selinker (2001) affirm that:
Generally, by hearing speech that has been simplified […], the second language learner will be better able to understand. It is a given that without understanding the language, no learning can take place. (p. 264)
Output seems to play an important role in SLA as well. White (1989) affirms that there are often clear differences between “the output of the second language learner and that of the native speakers” (p. 41). Most of these differences are found in phonology. Even after staying in a foreign country for a long period of time, many second language learners are unable to acquire a native-like accent. This opens an age-related discussion on second language learning. The age factor was first approached by the critical period hypothesis. This hypothesis claims that there is an ideal time window to learn a language, after which further language acquisition becomes much more difficult and effortful (Ellis, 1997). The subject related to age will be further discussed in section 2.3.5.1. While input is of crucial importance, output provides learners with feedback.
2.3.2 Social factors
The learning setting plays an important role in second language learning. The first distinction that is possible to make is whether the second language is learned in a natural or a formal (i.e., educational) setting. Corder (1981) states that in a formal learning setting the focus of attention is on the acquisition of “the target language code” (p. 76) and not really on the use of that code in communication. The classroom does not favour the free use of the learner’s language.
5 The social milieu in which foreign language learning takes place influences the opportunities that learners have to hear and speak the language and the attitudes that they develop towards it. The sociolinguistic setting refers to the relationship between the learner minority group and the local society. Richards’ (1974) study focuses on language learning in immigrant contexts. The author states that:
the outcome of the contact between the immigrant group and the dominant group is not so much a result of individual solutions […], but a result of social and economic possibilities made available for the group. (p. 65-66)
Several educational, cultural, and linguistic similarities or differences can affect immigrant assimilation, and influence their attitude towards the majority group and vice versa. Nemser (1974) observes that learners frequently communicate with each other more easily than with native speakers.
Furthermore, during social interaction, situational differences may appear. When talking with friends, it is natural to use informal language. On the contrary, when speaking with someone of a higher social status, more formal and polite language is appropriate.
2.3.3 Psycholinguistic factors
Psycholinguistics is the study of the mental structures and processes involved in the acquisition, use, comprehension and production of language. Within the field of SLA, this type of approach tries to explain the nature of learners' language knowledge. Following Ellis (1997), learners possess cognitive mechanisms which enable them to extract information about the second language from the input. Second language learning reflects the possession of a significant amount of knowledge on the part of second language learners. Firstly, they have already acquired a first language. This can be used to an advantage in second language
6 learning. Furthermore, second language learners can use their general knowledge about the world in order to understand second language input.
The basic cognitive model in SLA research, is the computational model. As explained by Ellis (1997), the computational model presupposes three steps, as illustrated in Figure 1. The learner is exposed to input. Certain elements of this input are saved in short-term memory. These elements are called intake. Next, some of this intake is converted into second language knowledge, which is stored in long-term memory. Finally, learners use this second language knowledge to produce spoken and written output, that is learner language.
Figure 1. A computational model of L2 acquisition (Ellis, 1997)
In other words, psycholinguistics attempts to figure out what kind of system extracts information from the input and subsequently uses it in output, as well as how this system works.
Some researchers focus on the role of consciousness in SLA. Ellis (1997) distinguishes between implicit knowledge, being “the second language knowledge of which a learner is unaware and therefore cannot verbalize” (p. 139), and explicit knowledge, namely “the second language knowledge of which a learner is aware and can verbalize on request” (p.139). Following this author, explicit knowledge is meaningful, as it can help the learner to develop implicit knowledge, and facilitate the process by which input is taken up.
Other psycholinguistic approaches have looked at learners' speech production. Because of the incomplete knowledge of the target language, language learners often face problems in communication. In order to overcome
7 these breakdowns, learners will make use of communication strategies, defined by Richards (1974) as:
interlingual features derived from the fact that heavy communication demands may be made on the second language, forcing the learner to mould what he has assimilated of the language into means of saying what he wants to say. (p. 70)
The communication strategies that learners possess can help them make effective use of their second language knowledge. It is still being debated whether the effect of communication strategies on SLA is positive and helping it, or negative and hampering it.
2.3.4 Linguistic factors
Linguistic approaches differ from psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic approaches in that they focus on the products of acquisition. Linguistic approaches provide a “description of the system produced by learners” (Gass & Selinker, 2001, p. 141), while psycholinguistic approaches describe the process by which those systems are produced, and sociolinguistic approaches focus on the social factors that influence the produced linguistic system. The two main topics of linguistic research within the field of SLA are typological universals and UG.
2.3.4.1 Typological universals
The study of typological universals springs from Greenberg’s (1966) work. He attempted to discover similarities and differences in languages all over the world. This is an empirical approach, surveying different languages. The most important outcome of this approach is that there are universal principles that are valid for all the world’s languages, called typological universals. As we have seen in Chapter 1, many of the typological universals are expressed in terms of
8 implications, meaning that if a language has aspect X, it will also have aspect Y. SLA research has shown that learner language of second language learners, being natural systems and newly created, also obey to typological universals (Gass & Selinker, 2001).
2.3.4.2 Universal grammar
UG approaches SLA from the learnability perspective. According to Chomsky (1966) children have an innate ability to learn language. UG consists of a set of principles, that are universal, and a set of parameters, which can be set differently from language to language (White, 1989).
As discussed in Chapter 1, while it is widely accepted among researchers that all learners of a first language have access to UG, this is not the case for second language learners. Existence of a UG in second language learning is suggested by the fact that second language learners often show knowledge about the target language that they have not been exposed to (White, 1989).
2.3.5 Individual factors
One of the most accepted facts about second language learning is that some individuals are more successful in acquiring a second language than other individuals (Gass & Selinker, 2001). A final set of internal factors, such as age, aptitude, and motivation explain why learners vary in their learning proficiency.
2.3.5.1 Age
It is commonly assumed that children are better language learners than adults. Children “faced with the exposure to the second language are more likely […] to develop a more similar set of approximative systems” (Corder, 1981, p. 76). The issue of age was first approached by the critical period hypothesis, claiming that there is an age after which it becomes difficult or even impossible to acquire
9 a second language to the same degree as a native speaker of that language (Ellis, 1997). However, there is still a lack of consensus on the issue.
One feature of the critical period hypothesis involves the speed of learning. Although children more often acquire native-like proficiency, adult learners often learn more rapidly in the initial stages of learning (Gass & Selinker, 2001). For example, the ability of adults to learn phonology seems to be rather quick, even if there is evidence in abundance that learners do not achieve a native-like accent, unless they are exposed to it at an early age (Gass & Selinker, 2001).
Furthermore, the exact age-related language deficiencies are disputed as well. In early studies, it was supposed that the loss in ability past a certain age was limited to phonology. Today it is generally agreed that learners’ age affects other linguistic domains as well, such as vocabulary and syntax. (Gass & Selinker, 2001).
The difference in acquisition of syntax between child and adult learners is sometimes associated with UG. Johnson and Newport (1989) state that, after the critical period, UG becomes inaccessible, meaning that there is a loss of access to the language learning faculty. White (1989) argues against this position and affirms that the role of UG does not finish when the course of first language acquisition is over, since:
UG consists of negative constraints that, among other things, prevent ungrammatical sentences and allow some interpretation of sentences over others, these constraints must presumably be part of our adult competence as well. (p. 45)
2.3.5.2 Aptitude
Language aptitude is the “natural ability” (Ellis, 1997, p. 73) for learning a second language. This natural disposition can lead to differences in success
10 between second language learners. Following some researchers (Ellis, 1997, Gass and Selinker, 2001), Carroll’s (1959) work about language aptitude testing in secondary schools made it possible to identify four components of aptitude:
1) Phonemic coding ability: the ability to discriminate between foreign sounds and to encode them so that they can be remembered later.
2) Grammatical sensitivity: the ability to identify the function of words in sentences, namely whether words in different sentences execute the same functions.
3) Inducting language learning ability: the ability to recognise relations between form and meaning.
4) Rote learner ability: the ability to form and remember associations between different stimuli, that is between words and phrases in a native and second language.
There is strong evidence that language learners that score high on language aptitude tests are typically faster and more efficient in acquiring a second language than low scoring language learners. Furthermore, language aptitude seems to be an important indicator of successful second language learning in both formal and informal contexts, i.e., both inside and outside the classroom.
2.3.5.3 Motivation
Motivation is another individual factor of crucial importance to the success of second language learning. It seems to be quite obvious that motivated language learners will acquire a second language faster and better. Richards (1974, p. 66) distinguishes between “instrumental” and “integrative” motivation. The first type of motivation drives second language learners to make efforts for functional purposes, such as to get a job. The second type of motivation demonstrates a desire for integration with the target language speech community. Motivation can also be of an intrinsic nature, meaning a genuine interest in the second
11 language itself without having distinct reasons for learning a second language (Ellis, 1997).
However, motivation is dynamic in nature and the types of motivation should be seen as complementary. Language learners’ motivation may change over time, depending on the moment or learning context. When second language learners develop their second language abilities, they can become more intrinsically and less instrumentally or integratively motivated.
2.3.5.4 Anxiety
Anxiety is a personal attitude towards learning and can have important effects on second language learning. Gass and Selinker (2001) subdivide anxiety in distinct types:
Social anxiety is basically concerned with constructing and/or maintaining a favorable impression upon others. In language-learning situations, this could involve teachers, interlocutors, or fellow students. Other sources of anxiety may be less overtly social. For example, test anxiety – fear of not doing well on tests – may have little to do with goals of impression management. (p. 357)
Both low and high levels of anxiety have negative effects on second language learning. Therefore, both too little as too much worrying about doing well may get in the way of success.
2.3.5.5 Learning strategies
Remarkable attention has been paid to the strategies second language learners use to learn a second language. Learning strategies are “the particular approaches or techniques that learners employ to try to learn a second language” (Ellis, 1997, p.76-77). It seems that successful learners sometimes implement different strategies than unsuccessful language learners. According to Ellis (1997),
12 successful second language learners seem to be active, flexible and able to manage their own learning. Furthermore, they show awareness of their personal learning process. When they are interviewed about their learning strategies, they can explain what they did to try to learn particular aspects of the second language.
The study of learning strategies offers the opportunity for second language learners to share their knowledge about SLA. This is of crucial interest to language teachers. If it is possible to identify the strategies that are essential for second language learning, it may be possible to train second language learners to use them through appropriate teaching techniques.
2.4 SLA and instruction
Considerable SLA research has focused on second language learning in the classroom context. This type of research analyses the classroom language, the teaching methods used, and the effects that instruction has on the second language learners.
In the classroom context, second language learners are surrounded by classmates, whose knowledge of the target language is also restricted. Therefore, interactional opportunities are rather limited (Gass & Selinker, 2001). However, the main problem with the classroom language is that the language addressed to the learners is almost always somewhat modified. Teachers simplify their speech in order to be more understandable to learners, but whether simplified input has a positive or negative effect on the second language learner is still disputed.
Many traditional language teaching techniques have proved to be inefficient. Nowadays, it is generally agreed among researchers that teaching vocabulary and grammar rules is not enough (Ellis, 1997). The second language learner must be encouraged to use the second language for communicative ends. The communicative approach, or communicative language teaching, is an approach
13 that emphasises communication as both the medium and the final aim of language learning. Language learners in environments utilising the communicative approach learn the target language through interaction with the teacher and with the other language learners. Nunan (1991) points out the characterising features of the approach:
1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language;
2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation;
3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language, but also on the learning process itself;
4. An enhancement of the learner's own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning;
5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.
(p. 279)
To conclude, according to Ellis (1997), it is of vital importance that both the teacher and the learner become aware of individual learning differences. Learners vary in the natural abilities they are strong in. Therefore, the type of instruction should be focused on these abilities, in order to progress through developmental stages more rapidly. Furthermore, in order to make it possible to improve foreign language teaching, teachers need to become aware of the features of learner language produced by their students. Corpus linguistics can offer useful methods to collect and analyse learner language. In the next chapter, I focus on what are known as learner corpora.
