Index
1. Summary 1
2. Introduction 4
2.1 Historical introduction 4
2.2 The legal classification and denomination of olive oil 6
2.3 Olive oil market 8
2.3.1 Production 8
2.3.2 Export 10
2.3.3 Consumption 11
2.3.4 Import 12
2.3.5 National characteristics: critical aspects and opportunities 13
2.4 Nutritional and Health Benefits 15
2.4.1 Extra virgin olive oil claims 18
2.5 Olive oil composition 19
2.5.1 Triglycerides (TG) 19
2.5.2 Minor components 20
2.6 Sensory quality of olive oil 24
2.7 Olive oil processing 28
2.7.1 Harvesting systems 28
2.7.2 Leaf removal and washing 29
2.7.3 Olive crushing 29
2.7.4 Olive paste malaxation 32
2.7.5 Extraction systems 33
2.7.6 Filtration 35
2.8 Olive mill waste and by-products 37
2.9 The olive oil refining process 42
2.10 Alterations 45
2.10.1 Alterations of lipid fraction 45
2.10.2 Alteration of phenolic compounds 48
2.11 Storage of olive oil 49
2.11.1 Temperature influence 50
2.11.2 Light influence 51
2.11.3 Packaging materials influence 51
2.11.4 Oxygen influence 53
2.11.5 Use of inert gas to improve stability of olive oil during storage 53
3. Aims 57
4.1 I Focus - Materials and methods 59
4.1.2 Raw material and climatic conditions 59
4.1.3 Olive oil extraction 60
4.1.4 Experimental plan 61
4.2 II Focus - Materials and methods 62
4.2.1 Sample 62
4.2.2 Preparation of Phenolic Extracts from Wastewater 62
4.2.3 Preparation of Phenol-Enriched Oil 63
4.3 III Focus - Materials and methods 63
4.3.1 III a Focus - Materials and methods 63
4.3.1.1 Olives and oil sample 63
4.3.1.2 Experimental set up 63
4.3.2 III b Focus - Materials and methods 64
4.3.2.1 Olives and oil samples 64
4.3.2.2 Experimental set up 65
4.4 Analytical determinations 65
4.4.1 Determination of free fatty acids (FFA) 65
4.4.2 Determination of peroxide value (PV) 65
4.4.3 Spectrophotometric investigation in the ultraviolet 66
4.4.4 Preparation of phenolic extracts and total phenol content determination 66
4.4.5 Bitterness Intensity (BI) determination 67
4.4.6 Antioxidant Capacity of the Olive Oils by ABTS Assay (TEAC) 67
4.4.7 Volatile compound analyses 68
4.4.8 Sensorial characterization 69
4.4.9 Statistical Analysis 69
5. Results and discussion 71
5.1 I Focus - Results and discussion 71
5.1.2 Olive characterization 71
5.1.3 Yield as a function of ripening index 72
5.1.4 Yield as a function of irrigation regimes 73
5.1.5 Phenol compounds as a function of ripening index 74
5.1.6 Phenol compounds as a function of irrigation regimes 76
5.1.7 Conclusions 77
5.2 II Focus - Results and discussions 78
5.2.1. Total Phenol Content of Wastewater and Wastewater Extracts 79
5.2.2. Quality Parameters and Total Phenol Content of COO, PE-A and PE-B 79
5.2.4 Analysis in an in vitro model of endothelial cells 81
5.2.5 Conclusions 85
5.3 III Focus - Results and discussions 86
5.3.1 III a Focus - Results and discussions 86
5.3.1.1 Effect of packaging and temperature on EVOO chemical parameters 86
5.3.1.2 Effect of storage atmosphere on EVOO sensorial parameters 89
5.3.1.3 Correlations among sensorial and chemical results 91
5.3.1.4 Conclusions 92
5.3.2 III b Focus - Results and discussions 94
5.3.2.1 Effect of packaging and temperature on EVOO chemical parameters 94
5.3.2.2. Effect of packaging and temperature on EVOO volatile compounds 98
5.3.2.3 Effect of packaging and temperature on EVOO sensorial parameters 103
5.3.2.4 Correlations among sensorial and chemical results 106
5.3.2.5 Conclusions 106
5.4 General conclusions 108
6. Annex 110
6.1 Annex I: Sensorial sheet 110
6.2 Annex II: Materials and Methods related to Section 4.2.4 112
6.2.1 Cell Culture 112
6.2.2 Cell Growth 112
6.2.3 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Measurement 112
6.2.4 Western Blot 112
6.2.5 Statistical Analysis 113
7. References 114
