Cenni su altri sistemi sanzionatori OAS E ASEAN,

Come già affermato precedentemente, seppur protagoniste principali l'ONU, l'UE e l'OAU/UA non sono le uniche organizzazioni impegnate nella lotta al terrorismo. È obiettivo di questo paragrafo svolgere una rapida panoramica su altre due Organizzazioni regionali quali l'Organization of American State e l'Association of South East Asian Nations, Nell'ordine:

- l'OAS, organizzazione che comprende i 35 stati indipendenti americani276_{, ha affrontato spesso}

il tema del terrorismo nella sua storia. È collocabile nel 1971 il primo passo in tal senso, quando l'Organizzazione adottò la “Convention to Prevent and Punish Acts of foreign terrorism Taking the Form of Crimes against Persons and Related Extortion that are of International Significance”, meglio nota come OAS Convention. Tale Convenzione nasce in risposta ai diversi episodi di sequestro di diplomatici posti in essere dai gruppi rivoluzionari al fine di ottenere concessioni politiche dai loro governi (si pensi al caso del sequestro e uccisione di Karl Von Spreti, Ambasciatore per la Germania dell'Ovest in Guatemala nel 1970). La Convenzione, in linea con le altre Carte del tempo circa la lotta al terrorismo, si limitò al tentativo di salvaguardare un determinato tipo di soggetti, la categoria appunto delle persone protette277_.

L'elaborazione di tale Convenzione non fu priva di forti contrasti politici e posizioni molto diverse dei vari Stati firmatari. Ne conseguì chiaramente una debolezza politica della Convenzione che tuttavia va a pieno diritto considerata all'interno degli strumenti giuridici nella lotta al terrorismo. Soprattutto poiché sarà tale Convenzione a dare la struttura di base per i

276 http://www.oas.org/en/member_states/default.asp. Lista completa dei membri.

277 <<The contracting states undertake to cooperate among themselves by taking all the measures that they may consider effective, under their own laws, and especially those established in this convention, to prevent and punish acts of terrorism, especially kidnaping, murder, and other assaults against the life or physical integrity of those persons to whom the state has the duty according to international law to give special protection, as well as extortion in connection with those crimes. For the purposes of this convention, kidnaping, murder, and other assaults against the life or personal integrity of those persons to whom the state has the duty to give special protection according to international law, as well as extortion in connection with those crimes, shall be considered common crimes of international significance, regardless of motive. >>

successivi lavori ONU, in particolare riferimento alla “UN Convention” del 1973278_{. Tra i}

dettami fondamentali di tale Carta, vanno sottolineati:

- L'imposizione dell'obbligo di prevenzione della possibilità per le organizzazioni terroristiche di utilizzare i territori degli Stati membri quali basi operative. (Art. 8)279

- Il richiamo alla cooperazione e allo scambio di informazioni tra le amministrazioni dei vari Stati firmatari (Art. 8, tema ricorrente e cruciale nella lotta al terrorismo).280

Come per tutte le altre Organizzazioni considerate, anche per l'OAS la fine della Guerra Fredda rappresentò un momento di svolta. In particolare il “Summit of the OAS response to terrorism”281

278 UN Convention on Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons.: <<1. The intentional commission of: (a) A murder, kidnapping or other attack upon the person or liberty of an internationally protected person; 3 b) A violent attack upon the official premises, the private accommodation or the means of transport of an internationally protected person likely to endanger his person or liberty; (c) A threat to commit any such attack; (d) An attempt to commit any such attack; and (e) An act constituting participation as an accomplice in any such attack shall be made by each State Party a crime under its internal law. 2. Each State Party shall make these crimes punishable by appropriate penalties which take into account their grave nature. 3. Paragraphs 1 and 2 of this article in no way derogate from the obligations of States Parties under international law to take all appropriate measures to prevent other attacks on the person, freedom or dignity of an internationally protected person. Article 3 1. Each State Party shall take such measures as may be necessary to establish its jurisdiction over the crimes set forth in article 2 in the following cases: (a) When the crime is committed in the territory of that State or on board a ship or aircraft registered in that State; (b) When the alleged offender is a national of that State; (c) When the crime is committed against an internationally protected person as defined in article 1 who enjoys his status as such by virtue of functions which he exercises on behalf of that States.>>.

279 “a. To take all measures within their power, and in conformity with their own laws, to prevent and impede the preparation in their respective territories of the crimes mentioned in Article 2 that are to be carried out in the territory of another contracting state.”

280 “To exchange information and consider effective administrative measures for the purpose of protecting the persons to whom Article 2 of this convention refers”.

281 <<7 Eliminating the Threat of National and International Terrorism:

National and international terrorism constitute a systematic and deliberate violation of the rights of individuals and an assault on democracy itself. Recent attacks that some of our countries have suffered have demonstrated the serious threat that terrorism poses to security in the Americas. Actions by governments to combat and eliminate this threat are essential elements in guaranteeing law and order and maintaining confidence in government, both nationally and internationally. Within this context, those who sponsor terrorist acts or assist in their planning or execution through the abuse of diplomatic privileges and immunities or other means will be held responsible by the international community.

Governments will:

Promote bilateral and subregional agreements with the aim of prosecuting terrorists and penalizing terrorist activities within the context of the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms. Convene a special conference of the OAS on the prevention of terrorism. >>.

Chiarissimo il riferimento (e l'allineamento in parte) di tale Convenzione alla Ris, 1373, nonché ad altri sturmenti giuridici precedenti quali la “Terrorist Financing Convention”. Altro riferimento importante è quello alle 40 Raccomandazioni FAFT. (Art. 4.2 When implementing paragraph 1 of this article, states parties shall use as guidelines the recommendations developed by specialized international and regional entities, in particular the Financial Action Task Force and, as appropriate, the InterAmerican Drug Abuse Control Commission, the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force, and the South American Financial Action Task Force).

Infine saranno gli attacchi dell'11/9 a dare vita durante i lavori dell'”OAS General Assembly” (Lima) all'adozione dell'“Inter-American Demoratic Charter£, ma soprattutto all' “Inter American Convention against Terrorism”, che prevede:

<< The purposes of this Convention are to prevent, punish, and eliminate terrorism.

Art. 1 To that end, the states parties agree to adopt the necessary measures and to strengthen cooperation among them, in accordance with the terms of this Convention.

Art. 2 Applicable international instruments

1. For the purposes of this Convention, “offenses” means the offenses established in the international instruments listed below:

…c. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on December 14, 1973...

.. i. International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on December 15, 1997.

j. International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on December 9, 1999.

Article 4: Measures to prevent, combat, and eradicate the financing of terrorism

1. Each state party, to the extent it has not already done so, shall institute a legal and regulatory regime to prevent, combat, and eradicate the financing of terrorism and for effective international cooperation with respect thereto, which shall include:

a. A comprehensive domestic regulatory and supervisory regime for banks, other financial institutions, and other entities deemed particularly susceptible to being used for the financing of terrorist activities. This regime shall emphasize requirements for customer identification, record-keeping, and the reporting of suspicious or unusual transactions.

b. Measures to detect and monitor movements across borders of cash, bearer negotiable instruments, and other appropriate movements of value. These measures shall be subject to safeguards to ensure proper use of information and should not impede legitimate capital movements.

Article 5 Seizure and confiscation of funds or other assets

1. Each state party shall, in accordance with the procedures established in its domestic law, take such measures as may be necessary to provide for the identification, freezing or seizure for the purposes of possible forfeiture, and confiscation or forfeiture, of any funds or other assets constituting the proceeds of, used to facilitate, or used or intended to finance, the commission of any of the offenses established in the international instruments listed in Article 2 of this Convention.>>http://www.oas.org/juridico/MLA/en/Treaties/en_Inter_Amer_Conve_against_Terrorism_2 002.pdf

I lavori OAS hanno continuato a svolgersi e ancora oggi l'Organizzazione è fortemente impegnata nella lotta al terrorismo e al suo finanziamento. Ciò è evidente soprattutto allorquando: “All Latin American States have adopted anti-money laundering legislation and set up financial intelligence units. In the post 9/11era, the Inter American system has taken a firm position as regards the protection of human rights while countering terrorism.”282_.

Non va sottovalutata poi la creazione del “CICTE (Inter-American Committee on Terrorism)”, il cui lavoro è ancora oggi fondamentale come risulta anche dalle ultime Risoluzioni OAS:

<<Inter-American Committee against Terrorism (CICTE)

109. To invite member states to cooperate with the General Secretariat in implementing the commitments contained in the CICTE Work Plan for 2014 adopted by the member states of CICTE at its fourteenth regular session, including cooperation in its work areas of cybersecurity, border controls, legislative assistance and combating terrorism financing, critical infrastructure protection, and international cooperation.

110. To take note of the CICTE Chair’s initiative to seek ways to continue to improve the effectiveness of the meeting of National Points of Contact and the long-term financial sustainability of CICTE.

111. To instruct the General Secretariat to continue providing the CICTE Secretariat with the necessary support to ensure continuity in the implementation of its mandates, including support for convening and holding the fifteenth regular session of CICTE, scheduled to be held at the headquarters of the Organization, in Washington, D.C., from March 18 to 20, 2015, and of the thirteenth meeting of National Points of Contact to CICTE, which will take place in conjunction with that regular session, as well as the three one-day meetings to be held on December 5, 2014; January 23, 2015; and February 20, 2015, at the headquarters of the Organization. >>283_.

Pertanto è evidente come anche tale Organizzazione sia oggi nella schiera dei protagonisti anti- terrorismo e come anche in questo l'allineamento verso una posizione cooperativa con l'ONU sia sempre più emergente.

- L'ASEAN, organizzazione regionale che conta 10 membri, è anch'essa impegnata nella lotta al terrorismo. La dinamica terrorista del Sud-Est Asiatico è sempre stata meno sotto la luce dei

282 M. Sossai, “The legal response of the Organisation of American States in combating terrorism”, in Research Handbook on international law and terrorism, p.716.

riflettori delle cronache internazionali, ma come dimostrano soprattutto i recenti eventi ( l'attentato di Giacarta, rivendicato dall' ISIS ad esempio o gli attentati in Thailandia di qualche mese fa)284 _{nonché anche le tristi cronache di inizi 2000 ( noto Attentato di Bali, rivendicato da}

Al-Qaeda), il Sud-Est asiatico non è immune al fenomeno terrorista. In risposta a ciò, l'ASEAN ha così provato a porre rimedio:

- MLAA (Treaty on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters, 2004).285

- ACCT ( ASEAN Convention on Counter Terrorism, 2007 ratificato totalmente nel 2013).286

Lo spirito di entrambe le Carte è quello di rafforzare la cooperazione legale tra gli Stati Membri nella ricerca di una maggior compattezza nella lotta al terrorismo, che nello specifico caso geografico è rappresentato principalmente da “Jemaah Islamiah (JI)”, gruppo legato ad Al- Qaeda287_.

Mentre l'MLAA rientra nella classica categoria di un trattato di cooperazione, l'ACCT pone in essere sostanziali passi in avanti288

284 http://www.internazionale.it/notizie/2016/01/19/attentato-nel-sud-della-thailandia 285 http://www.asean.org/storage/images/archive/17363.pdf

286 http://www.asean.org/asean-convention-on-counter-terrorism-completes-ratification-process/ 287 Le principali informazioni a riguardo sono riprese da R. Gunaratna, “Regional legal responses to terrorism in Asia and the Pacific”, in Research Handbook on international law and terrorism.

288 http://cil.nus.edu.sg/rp/pdf/2007%20ASEAN%20Convention%20on%20Counter%20Terrorism- pdf.pdf << RECALLING the Charter of the United Nations and relevant principles of international law, the relevant international conventions and protocols relating to counter terrorism and relevant resolutions of the United Nations on measures aimed at countering international terrorism, and reaffirming our commitment to protect human rights, fair treatment, the rule of law, and due process as well as the principles enshrined in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia done at Bali on 24 February 1976;

REAFFIRMING that terrorism cannot and should not be associated with any religion, nationality, civilisation or ethnic group;

RECALLING also the ASEAN Declaration on Joint Action to Counter Terrorism and the Declaration on Terrorism adopted at the ASEAN Summits in 2001 and 2002 respectively;

This Convention shall provide for the framework for regional cooperation to counter, prevent and suppress terrorism in all its forms and manifestations and to deepen cooperation among law enforcement agencies and relevant authorities of the Parties in countering terrorism.