L’analisi presentata in questo scritto non ha la pretesa di stabilire delle correlazioni tra il processo di riduzione di vaste estensioni degli ecosistemi che sono alla base della nostra capacità di produrre cibo e i flussi migratori internazionali. Si tratta peraltro di correlazioni difficilmente rintracciabili data la complessità degli intricati rapporti di interrelazione tra numerosi fenomeni di differente natura. L’obiettivo dell’articolo non è nemmeno quello di prevedere incrementi dei flussi migratori connessi a tali proble- matiche. Si tratta invece di un’indagine basata su dati ex post, che mostra come il sovra sfruttamento degli ecosistemi e il loro conseguente degrado possano avere influenze sui flussi migratori, mirando ad offrire alcuni spunti di riflessione, oltre che alcuni “cam- panelli d’allarme” che possono rivelare la loro utilità per le scelte di policy. Dai risultati dello studio condotto, è possibile affermare l’esistenza di ripercussioni negative in ter- mini di “sostenibilità inter-generazionale”, principio cardine attorno al quale è stato sviluppato il concetto di sviluppo sostenibile, poiché gli attuali livelli di consumo stan- no chiaramente andando verso l’erosione di risorse naturali che dovrebbero, invece, essere consegnate intatte alle generazioni future. Accanto alla mancanza di una “soste- nibilità inter-generazionale”, emerge inoltre anche la mancanza di una “sostenibilità intra-generazionale”, a causa dei profondi squilibri nell’accesso alle risorse tra i diversi territori. Tali problematiche si rilevano sia alla scala globale, dei singoli continenti, sia a
64 MARCO BAGLIANI -ANTONELLA PIETTA
quella degli Stati del Sahel, caso appositamente scelto per la nota stretta interdipenden- za tra degrado ambientale e flussi migratori.
7. Bibliografia
Carlo Brusa, Il Mediterraneo e l’Italia: tra flussi migratori consolidati ed emergenze collegate alla caduta dei regimi al potere nei paesi della sponda Sud, in Giuseppe Scanu, Volume in memoria di Pasquale Brandis, Pàtron Editore, Bologna in corso di stampa.
Luc Cambrézy, Réfugiés et exilés – crise des sociétés – crise des territories, Editions des Archives Contemporaines, Paris 2001.
Stephen Castles, Environmental change and forced migration: making sense of the de- bate, in “New Issues in Refugee Research” - UNHCR Working Paper 70, 2002.
Josefina Domínguez-Mujica, Mobility in times of uncertainty: a geographical perspecti- ve, in Carlo Brusa (a cura di), Immigrazione e processi di interazione culturale, in “Geo- tema”, n. 43-44-45, Bologna 2012, pp. 13-16.
Tobias Hagmann, Confronting the Concept of Environmentally Induced Conflict Peace, in “Conflict and Development”, n. 6, 2005, pp. 1-22.
Peter Haldén, The geopolitics of climate change, Report FOI R-277-SE, Swedish Re- search Defense Agency, 2007.
Thomas Hammer, Desertification and Migration, in Jon Darrel Unruh, Krol Maarten, Nurit Kliot (eds.), Environmental Change and Its Implications for Population Migration, Kluwer, Dordrecht 2004.
Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons, in “Science”, n. 162, 1968, pp. 1243-1248. Graeme Hugo, Environmental Concerns and International Migration, in “Interna- tional Migration Review”, n. 1, 1996, pp. 105-131.
Audrey Mayer, Pekka E. Kauppi, Per K. Angelstam, Yu Zhang, Päivi M. Tikka, Im- porting Timber, Exporting Ecological Impact, in “Science”, 308, 2005, pp. 359-360.
Etienne Piguet, Climate change and forced migration, Research Paper n. 153, New is- sues in Refugee Research, Policy Development and Evaluation Service United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2008.
Michael Samers, Migration, Routledge, New York, 2010.
Amartya Kumar Sen, Poverty and famines: an essay on entitlement and deprivation, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1981.
Nicholas Herbert N. Stern, The economics of climate change: the Stern review, Cam- bridge University Press, Cambridge 2007.
Mathis Wackernagel, Chad Monfreda, Dan Moran, Paul Wermer, Steve Goldfin- ger, Diana Deumling, Michael Murray, National footprint and Biocapacity Accounts 2005: the underlying calculation method, Global Footprint Network, Oakland 2005.
Wwf, Zoological Society of London, Global Footprint Network, Living Planet Re- port 2008, Gland 2008.
PARVEEN NANGIA,JORGE VIRCHEZ
International Migration and Socioeconomic Development in
Sending Communities: A Case Study of Punjab, India
1. Introduction
International migrants are generally ambitious, hard working, energetic, persons who are open to new ideas and willing to adapt to a new culture, language and life style (Bodvarsson and Van den Berg, 2009). «When people move, they embark on a journey of hope and uncertainty, whether within or across international borders» (UNDP, 2009, p. 4). Migrants are considered risk takers because they are willing to leave behind the known and tread into an unknown territory and community. Real adventurers are those who move with their small children and little money, without a job offer in hand, and without any relative or friend in the place of destination.
In their discussion on theories of international migration, Bodvarsson and Van den Berg (2009) point out to the differences between developed and developing countries in terms of non-tradable goods, public goods and amenities, such as quality of food, housing, transport, communication and recreational goods; good health care and edu- cation system; more functional judicial system, and democratic values. These differ- ences motivate people to migrate from developing to developed countries. Though individual countries vary in terms of level of international migration, about three per- cent of the world population live in a country different than their birth (Bodvarsson and Van den Berg, 2009).
Many studies suggest that international migrants remit a part of their income which is used by the remaining members for their survival and improvement in the standard of life (Xing, 2010; Semyonov and Gorodzeisky, 2008; Singh, 2007; Chen- grong and Nangia, 1997). Some families adopt labour migration as an economic strat- egy to increase income as international migrants generally move from low income countries to high income countries and get much higher returns on their human capi- tal (Xing, 2010).
Large scale international migration has pros and cons for both receiving and send- ing countries. The receiving countries may gain trained workers without any invest- ment as most of the migrants are young workers who pay taxes and contribute to eco- nomic development of the receiving country. At the same time residents of destination countries face tougher competition for jobs, which can result into social and cultural conflict and political tensions. The sending countries may lose professional and trained workers but get remittances in return. They may experience cultural and ideological change which may result into political upheaval, as it happened recently in some of the Arab countries (Tunisia, Yemen, Egypt, and Libya). In this chapter we will focus on
66 PARVEEN NANGIA,DR.JORGE VIRCHEZ
causes and consequences of emigration from the perspective of a sending county in Asia which has seen rapid economic growth in recent years but is lagging behind in social development. After examining the overall picture of emigration from India we will focus on a particular region of the country which is known for its high flare for overseas migration.